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MODERN 
CABINETWORK 

FURNITURE 6 FITMENTS 



PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN AT 
THE DARIEN PRESS, EDINBURGH 



Frontispiece-. 



Plate I. 




China Cabinei in Coromandel, Palm, \ni» Snakewood. 
{Designed and made by Mr I!'. Willingale.) 



MODERN 
CABINETWORK 

FURNITURE & FITMENTS 

an account of the theory & practice in the 
production of all kinds of cabinetwork 
& furniture with chapters on the growth 
and progress of design and construction 
Illustrated byoveriooo practical workshop 
drawings photographs & original designs 

BY PERCY A.WELLS 

JdeacfcfCahnetTDepartment, CCCStwrecfitcfi lickniccdjnst: 
Sdver 'MedaCfcst, Roved Society cfJivts. 

& JOHN HOOPER,mb.e. 

"Honours Sdver'Medcddst, Citv6i(jwlds cfLnidcnhJnstautje. 
Silver "Medat Carpenters' CompaniiCaJknet Section. 

T/urdEdzticm Revised with adcktioTiaClUustrcuions 

PHILADELPHIA 
J.B.LIPPLNCOTT COMPANY. 



TT/ . 



First Edition Printed 1909 

Do. Reprinted 1911 

Second Edition Printed 1918 

Third Edition Printed 1922 






Printed in (,>;«/ Britail 



PREFACE 

CONSIDERING the importance of the Craft of Cabinetmaking, 
it is surprising that no work has been published dealing fully 
with its modern developments and progress. During the last 
twenty-five years remarkable changes have taken place in methods of 
production as well as in taste and fashion as they affect house furnish- 
ing, and to-day the term " Cabinetmaking " covers a much wider scope 
in craftsmanship than it did formerly. It has been the aim of the 
authors to produce a book which illustrates step by step the practice 
of the craft in all its applications, from the making of a joint, to the 
preparation, setting out, and complete construction of the numerous 
and various types of furniture and woodwork which the Cabinetmaker 
is called upon to make. They have also endeavoured to combine 
essential features in good design and construction with modern pro- 
cesses and materials. 

It is hoped that the book will meet the needs of the Craftsman 
and others engaged in the trade, as well as a numerous and increasing 
public interested in furniture. Much of the material has been prepared 
in connection with lectures given during the past few years at the 

L.C.C. Shoreditch Technical Institute. 

PERCY A. WELLS. 

JOHN HOOPER. 
August 1909. 

NOTE TO THIRD EDITION. 

The rapid sale of the second, and a call for a third edition 
of " Modern Cabinet Work" is particularly gratifying to the Authors, 
and is a further proof of its appreciation by Designers, Craftsmen, 
and the Furniture Trade generally, both at home and abroad. 

This new edition has been brought up to date by the in- 
clusion of fresh text and plates illustrating some recent developments 
in modern furniture. It is hoped that the book will continue to 
enhance the prestige of an ancient and interesting craft. 

PERCY A. WELLS. 
JOHN HOOPER 
May 1922. 



NOTE OF ACKNOWLEDGMENT 



Thanks are sincerely tendered to the following gentlemen for the use of 
designs, photographs, or drawings : — The Right Hon. the Earl of Dysart ; 
Lieut.-Col. G. B. Croft-Lyons ; Mr J. S. Henry ; Mr Ambrose Heal (Heal 
& Son, Ltd.) ; Messrs Geo. Trollope & Sons ; Mr Harry Hems, Exeter ; 
Mr Frank Stuart Murray ; Mr H. E. Marillier (Morris & Co.) ; Mr George 
Jack ; Mr E. R. Gimson ; Mr Charles Spooner ; Mr S. Hicks, Principal of 
the Shoreditch Technical Institute ; Mr W. B. Dalton ; Mr R. Waterer, Jun. 
(Waterer & Son, Chertsey) ; Mr J. P. White, Bedford ; Mr E. J. Minihane ; 
Messrs Wilson Bros., Leeds ; Mr Fred Skull, High Wycombe ; Mr D. Richter, 
The Bath Cabinet Makers Co.; Mr W. Willingale ; Mr A. Gregory; Messrs 
Oetzmann & Co.; and Mr Park (London and North- Western Railway Com- 
pany). Thanks are also due to Messrs A. J. Shirley & Co. for the loan of 
examples of metalwork, and to Mr Thomas Johnson, Mr Edward Pite, 
and Mr E. Newbery Flashman for special designs they have prepared. 
The Authors are also indebted to Mr A. Carr for photographs of workshop 
processes ; and to Mr G. Gummer and Mr A. Jessop for assistance with 
drawings ; to Mr John Dunkin for kindly reading proofs ; to Mr Percy J. 
Smith for the lettering of the cover and title-page ; and to Messrs Batsford for 
lightening a heavy task with much help and consideration. 

PERCY A. WELLS. 
JOHN HOOPER. 



CONTENTS 



I. INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

Origin of Cabinetmaking — The Cabinetmaker, Old and New — Modern Developments i 

II. TOOLS, APPLIANCES, MATERIALS. 

Hand Tools — Their Construction — Cutting Actions — Care of — A Cabinetmaker's Kit — 

Prices — Tool Chest --------- 5 

III. DRAWING, GEOMETRY, DESIGN : TECHNICAL TERMS. 

Instruments and their Uses — Practical Geometry — Setting out Polygons — Scales — 

Ellipses, &c. — Cabinet Drawing and Perspective — Technical Terms - - -22 

IV. JOINTS AND THEIR APPLICATION. 

All Types of Joints — Mitre, Key, Dovetailing, Dowel, Tenon, Shutting and Hingeing 
Joints — Diagrams to Illustrate their Use in Various Jobs — Curved and Straight 
Work ----------- 2,6 

V. WORKSHOP PRACTICE. 

Practical Instruction in Bench Methods — Sharpening and Setting Tools — Setting out 
and Preparing Stuff — Working Mouldings — Cutting Tenons — Mortising — All Kinds 
of Dovetailing — Making Doors, Drawers, Plinths, Cornices — Building up Curved 
Work — Ploughing, Grooving, Tongueing, and Finishing 54 

VI. FRAMED UP WORK, TABLES, &C. 

How to Set out and Make Flap, Writing, Card, Toilet, Tea, and all Kinds of Fancy 
Tables — Extending Tables — Telescope — Tray Frame — Draw and Other Dining 
Tables - - - 88 

VII. CARCASE WORK. 

The Making of a Carcase — Wardrobes — Chests of Drawers — Bookcases — Cabinets — 

Corner, Curved, and Shaped Fronts and Ends — Solid and Veneered Work, &c. - 140 

VIII. BEDSTEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS FURNITURE. 

The Construction of Clock Cases — Screens — Bedsteads — Revolving Bookcases — Dumb 

Waiters — Hanging Cabinets, Hall Furniture, &c. - - - - - 184 

IX. VENEERS AND VENEERING, MARQUETRY 
AND INLAYING. 

Veneers— Saw Cut and Knife Cut — Preparation of Stuff — Methods of Laying and 
Finishing — Stringing, Banding, and Building up Patterns — Inlaying in Pearl, 
Ivory, and Tortoise-Shell — Buhl Work and French Marquetry — Repairs of Old 
Work, &c. - - - - 210 



CONTENTS 



X. FOREMEN'S WORK, PRACTICAL SETTING OUT AND 
APPLIED GEOMETRY. 

PAGE 

Setting out for Hand or Machine Work— Workshop and Office Methods in Costing- 
up Materials and Preparing Estimates, Cutting Lists, &c— Developing Shapes 
in Curved Work Raking and Curved Mouldings— Setting out Gothic Tracery— 
Taking Templates and General Foreman's Work, &c. - - - 225 

XI. NOTES ON THE HISTORIC STYLES OF FURNITURE, 

WITH EXAMPLES OF MODERN WORK. 

A lirief Account of Cothic, French, Renaissance, Elizabethan, and Jacobean Styles — 
Chippendale, Sheraton, and other Eighteenth Century Makers— Examples of 
Furniture by Modern Designers ... - - - 250 

XII. CONSTRUCTIONAL AND DECORATIVE BRASSWORK, 

MOVEMENTS AND FITTINGS. 

Types of Hinges— Locks— Quadrants— Stays— Glass Movements— Handles— Methods 

of Setting out Hinges, Stays, and Cylinder Fall Movements, &c. - - 260 

XIII. MACHINE TOOLS AND MACHINING— MOULDINGS. 

Types of Machines— Moulding— Dovetailing— Tenoning— Planing— Circular, Band, and 
Frame Saws- Mouldings, Examples of Greek, Roman, and Later Periods — Lathes 
and Lathe Work - - - - 271 

XIV. PANELLING AND FITMENTS. 

Taking of Templates— Preparation of Walls— Methods of Fixing Panelling, Dados, 

Fireplaces, Bedroom, and other Fitments — Ceiling Work, &c. - - 276 

XV. SPECIAL FURNITURE FOR SHOPS, OFFICES, 
AND MUSEUMS. 

Shop Fittings— Counter and Bank Work— Air-Tight Show Case Making— Office 

Cabinets -Museum Furniture— Reading Desks — Print Cases — Paper Stands, &c. 296 

XVI. CHAIR MAKING. 

Chairs and Couches— Cane — Loose-Seat and Stuff-Over Frames— Methods of Con- 
struction Cramping- Proportions and Sizes — Styles, with a Chronological Chart 312 

XVII. ENGLISH, FOREIGN, AND COLONIAL WOODS. 

Growth and Structure of Trees — Hard and Soft Wood -Ports of Shipment — Sizes of 
Lo^s, Methods of Conversion-- Seasoning, Shrinkage, and Warpage — Defects — 
Prices Spe< 3 -Description of over 200 Timbers — Special Section on 

Colonial Furniture Woods ....... 326 

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL AND WORKSHOP TERMS, 

NAMES, AND REFERENCES - 355 

A SHORT LIST OF BOOKS ON HISTORIC FURNITURE 372 
INDEX - - - - 377 



LIST OF DOUBLE-PAGE AND 
PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATES 



(Single-Page Drawings are included in the General Index.) 
P. signifies Photograph, and D.P. Double Page. 



PLATE DESCRIPTION OF PLATE. 

I. China Cabinet, by W. Willingale 

II. A Fifteenth Century Gothic Cabinet ... - 

III. The Queen's Saloon in the Royal Train (L. & N.W.R.) 

IV. A Design for a Dining-Room in the Jacobean Style, by T. Johnson 

V. Cottage Furniture, by C Spooner ; Bedroom Furniture, by J 

Henry Ltd. - - 

VI. Joints and their Application — Glued Joints 
VII. ,, ,, ,, Halved and Bridle Joints - 

VIII. ,, ,, ,, Mortise and Tenon Joints 

IX. ,, „ „ Dovetail Joints 

X. ,, ,, „ Mitred Joints 

XL ,, ,, ,, Framing Joints 

XII. ,, ,, ,, Hingeing and Shutting Joints 

XIII. „ ,, ,, Miscellaneous Joints 

XIV. ,, ,, ,, Connecting Joints 
XV. A Telescope Table 

XVI. A Billiard Table - 

XVII. Mahogany Sideboard 

XVIII. Painted Sideboards 

XIX. Cabinet in Coromandel and Satinwood - 

XX. Satinwood Writing Cabinet 

XXI. Satinwood Wardrobe 

XXII. China Cabinet - 

XXIII. A Cabinet with Dutch Marquetry 
XXIV, A Buhl Wardrobe and Inlaid Clock Case 

XXV. A Dutch Cabinet with Ivory Overlay 

XXVI. A Gothic Pulpit and Stall, by H. Hems & Sons - 
XXVII. A Seventeenth Century Chest of Drawers 



FACING 


PAGE 


P. Title 


page 


P. 


2 


P. 


2 


P. 


3 


J. S. 




P. 


3 


D.P. 


37 


D.P. 


39 


D.P. 


4i 


D.P. 


43 


D.P. 


45 


D.P. 


47 


D.P. 


49 


D.P. 


5 1 


D.P. 


5 2 


D.P. 


88 


D.P. 


89 


P. 


i5 2 


P. 


J 53 


P. 


164 


P. 


165 


P. 


194 


P. 


!95 


P. 


210 


P. 


222 


P. 


223 


P. 


250 


P. 


2 5i 



p. 


252 


p. 


253 


p. 


254 


p. 


255 


p. 


256 


p. 


256 


p. 


257 


p. 


257 


p. 


258 


p. 


258 



xii LIST OF PLATES 

PLATE DESCRIPTION OF PLATE. FACING PAGE 

XXVIII. A Late Chippendale Cabinet and a William and Mary Chest of 
Drawers- ... 

XXIX. Chippendale and Hepplewhite Chairs 

XXX. Sheraton Tables ... - 

XXXI. Marie Antoinette Toilet Table, and an Adam Pier Table 

XXXI I. An Italian Walnut Inlaid Cabinet, by Morris & Co. - 

X X X 1 1 1. A Toilet Table and Chair, by Heal & Son Ltd. 

XXXIV. A Wardrobe and Cupboard Chest, by Heal & Son Ltd. 

XXXV. A Sideboard and Print Cabinet, by E. W. Gimson - 

XXXVI. A Grand Piano, by A. E. Durand - 

XXXVII. Garden Furniture, by J. P. White 

XXXVIII. Tart of the Saloon on the S.S. " Mauretania," by F. Stuart Murray. 

[Photograph from a Model) P. 258 

XXXIX. A Hay in the Smoking-Room on the S.S. "Mauretania," by F. Stuart 

Murray - {Pencil Drawing) 259 

XT. Two Sideboards - - - P. 259 

XLI. An Oak Dresser, by C. Spooner ; A Bookcase and Folio Cabinet, 

by P. A. Wells - - P. 259 

XLI I. A Band Saw and Planing Machine - - P. 272 

XLIII. A Circular Saw P. 273 

XI.IV. A Design for the Side of a Colonial Georgian Room, by J. 

Hooper - - - D.P. 284 

XLV. Measured Drawing and Details of Jacobean Room - - D.P. 292 

XI AT. Boudoir of Marie Antoinette at Versailles - - P. 294 

XI AT I. A Design for a Room in Colonial Adam Style, by E. Pite {Drawing) 295 

XLVIII. A Museum Floor Case .... D.P. 302 

XLIX A Cash Desk - D.P. 304 

L. A Chronological Chart, giving Names, Characteristics, and Dates of 

Chairs and Seats in various Styles - - - D.P. 314 

LI. A Cabinet made of Australian Black Bean Wood, by Geo. Trollope 

X- Sons Ltd. P. 350 

1,11. A Panelled Room, with Furniture made of Australian Woods, by 

Geo. Trollope & Sons Ltd. - - - ?. , 351 

LI II. Tables made of Australian Rosewood and Silky Oak, by Geo. 

Trollope X Sons Ltd. - P. 352 



MODERN CABINETWORK, 
FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



{NOTE. — Throughout this work the letters "/" signify figure, and "p." page. When the 
figure referred to is on the same page, no page number is given. When the same or 
several figures on the same page are referred to close together, the page number is given 
only with the first reference. 

The figures of each illustration, where it consists of several, are separately numbered, 
and where there is more than one block on each page the numbering is continued throughout 
that page. References to illustrations are made primarily to the pages on which the figures 
occur, and. in no case is the numbering continued beyond each separate page, with the 
exception of the photographic and double plates, which it will be found are numbered 
continuously in Roman numerals.] 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

CABINETMAKING-ANCIENT AND MODERN. 

Origin of Cabinetmaking — Development of Furniture — The Cabinetmaker, Old and 
New — Division of Labour — Present-Day Requirements and Prospects. 

It is a long stretch from the fifteenth to the twentieth century, but it covers 
a period that embraces the beginning and gradual rise of a craft which has 
taken a place in the front rank of skilled trades. No one engaged in it, whether 
apprentice or journeyman, salesman or designer, manager or master, can afford 
to ignore its historical side, when at any time he may be called upon either to 
design, make, or sell a piece of furniture which directly or indirectly bears 
some relation to the fashions of bygone periods. Having to face this fact, we 
may briefly refer to the development of cabinetmaking, and to changes at 
different periods, before turning to the practical reasons for which this book 
is written, viz., to explain the actual making of furniture of all kinds. 

Cabinetmaking grew out of the needs and necessities of the times, as 
ideas of household comfort and taste grew and improved. Even the furniture 
of the fifteenth century — rude as it appears to us — was an advance on that 
of the thirteenth, when goods and chattels were preserved in " dug outs," or 
chests roughly hewn out of the solid, and chairs were luxuries for kings 



2 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

alone. As domestic life improved, and housekeeping articles increased, it 
became necessary to "cabin" or enclose them, and the "joyner" who made 
the "cabins" or "cupboards" gradually developed into the cabinetmaker. 
How and when the separation took place it is impossible to say, as the transi- 
tion was a slow one, but the earliest records we have of it are in the doings of 
a " Guild of Cofferers," a society of craftsmen in the fifteenth century who made 
a specialty of the construction of chests, " coffers," or " hutches " as they were 
named, and it is reasonable to suppose that they also made other articles of 
household use. From the chest — which for a long time served as cupboard, 
seat, table, and bed — we can trace the development of much of our modern 
furniture. It improved in construction as time went on, and was panelled and 
framed into legs. It was an easy and natural thing to lengthen the legs 
and add another "cabin" or drawer as seen in the fifteenth century Gothic 
cabinet illustrated in Plate II. Shelves were fixed on the top, or another cup- 
board with a cornice supported by pillars was added, and the old chest became a 
"buffet," or "court," and "cheese" cupboard, and from this it is not such a big 
jump to the Yorkshire " dresser," or to the nineteenth century sideboard with 
cupboards, drawers, and a back. Again, the chest with back and arms became a 
" settle," the forerunner of our settee and sofa. Out of it, too, grew the " almery," 
"armoire," "press," and the chest of drawers. A fine example of a "press" is 
illustrated on p. 3 ; it may be compared with a modern wardrobe. 

Much has been said in praise of the old cabinetmakers, and deservedly so, 
for we can learn a great deal from their work, but the conditions of labour and 
living are changed, and the cabinetmaker of to-day is called upon to show a 
finer skill and larger resource than were ever exhibited by the craftsmen of the 
ancient guilds. The demands upon his craftsmanship vary from making the 
daintiest articles for the boudoir, to the massive furnishings of a Town Hall. 
He must be equally ready to repair an umbrella stand or fit up a royal saloon, a 
yacht, or an office ; to tackle any job that comes along in any style or material, 
or to cheerfully pack up his tools when there is none. When so much praise 
is given to the old cabinetmakers, equal recognition is due to their successors in 
modern times. 

The introduction of fiats ; the increase of luxurious hotels ; the changes 
and improvements in house building which have brought the " fitment " and 
the " ingle nook," have all tended to widen the scope of the cabinetmaker's 
craft. But his work is not confined to domestic furnishings only. Special 
furniture is made for ships, yachts, trains, schools, hospitals, sanatoria, museums, 
offices, municipal buildings, libraries, and reading rooms. Photography has 
created a demand for minute but skilled work ; the increasing use of stationery, 
and the manufacture of surgical and scientific apparatus, have brought about the 
" case-maker," whilst the theatre, the garden, and various sports all call for work 
of a specialised character. 

On the other hand, the decline of the apprenticeship system, and the increas- 
ing division of labour, tend to produce a specialist in one branch of the trade 
only, as against an all-round workman, and it is more difficult for a lad to get a 
thorough training than in former years. Any decline in the standard of work- 
manship must end in disastrous results for all concerned, and beginners in 






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Plate V. 




Oak Furniture Designed by C. Spooner and A. J. Penty. 




Satinwood Bedroom Furniture. By J. S. Henry Ltd. 

[To face page 3. 



INTRODUCTION 



the trade who seriously wish to master their craft will not be satisfied at learning 
one part of it only. As fashions change, there must ever be a demand for good 
and resourceful cabinetmakers, and although it may be necessary to specialise 




Seventeenth Century Oak Press, in the Strangers' Hall, Norwich. 



for a time, there are numerous means whereby a man may study various 
sides of his craft. It is hoped that this book may serve a useful purpose in 
giving a practical insight into some of these branches. 



4 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

The furniture designers and cabinetmakers of to-day have to show the 
public that they can design and make furniture equal to if not surpassing 
the antique specimens for which there is such an increasing craze. It is only 
by showing the public that well-designed and soundly-made furniture can 
be produced at moderate prices that a demand for such will be established 
and increased. 

In looking ahead, it is safe to say that the future of the English furniture 
and cabinetmaking trade generally must depend upon the quality of the work 
put upon the market. The combination of designer, maker, and machine 
should produce a type which can hold its own against all comers, and appeal 
to all buyers. There is a growing desire for good furniture, and it behoves 
the cabinetmaker to be ready for these changes, and well equip himself for 
fresh demands upon his intelligence and labour. 

Cabinetmaking is a craft which must always be closely allied to the 
great mother art of architecture. It embodies some of the finest traditions 
of English craftsmanship, and whatever changes have taken place or may 
come, these traditions must continue to hold the imagination of the workers 
in it, whether individual or collective. If these traditions are carried on, we 
should then have English furniture what it has been in the past — good to 
make and pleasant to live with. 



CHAPTER II. 

TOOLS— APPLIANCES— MATERIALS. 

Hand Tools — Planes — Chisels — Saws — Files, &c. — Their Construction, Cutting Action, 
Selection, and Care of — A Cabinetmaker's Kit and Tool Chest — Special and Shop 
Tools — Workshop Appliances and Materials. 




Section of Jack Plane. 



PLANES. 

Cabinetmakers do not require so many tools as they did fifty years ago, but 
it is still as necessary to have a good " kit," and to know how to take care of it. 
A thorough know- 
ledge of tools is only 
obtained by long 
practice, but there are 
certain mechanical 
principles underlying 
their construction 
which should be 
understood from the 
beginning. 

The most pro- 
minent of all the 
tools is the plane, in 
its many and various 

shapes, sizes, and uses. Its size, in any particular work, has been settled by 
long usage and proof. Although the machine has saved much laborious labour, 

the hand plane must always remain 
an indispensable tool. Fig. I above 
shows a sectional side view of an 
ordinary jack plane. The names of 
its parts are as follows : — A, toat or 
handle ; B, body or stock ; C, toe ; 
D, nose ; E, heel ; F, escapement ; 
G, mouth, on one side nearly vertical, 
on the other at 45 deg. ; H, wedge ; 
I, cutting iron ; J, cap or back iron ; 
K, sole ; L, screw. These names 
apply more or less to planes of all 
descriptions, varying only in those 
where a screw is used in place of the wedge. Sometimes a button, M, of box- 
wood is sunk in near the nose to take the hammer marks. 







End of Plane, with 
Rays in Right 
Direction. 



End of Plane, show- 
ing Rays in Wrong 
Direction. 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




English wooden planes are made of beech, which should always be well 

seasoned and straight grained. It should also be cut so that the sole is as 

near as possible at right angles to the medullary rays, to allow for a uniform 

shrinkage. A stock which has been " cleft " from the raw timber is more likely 
to remain true than a sawn one, but, as this is an expensive 
method, only the best planes are made from cleft wood. In 
buying a plane it is important to examine the end of the stock. 
Fig. 2, p. 5, shows the rays in a jack plane as near right as 
they can be, whilst f. 3 illustrates the result of irregular cutting 
when shrinkage takes place, the diagram being somewhat ex- 
aggerated to show it. A stock which has been cut from the 
outside portion of the tree is far better than one cut near the 
heart, and the sole of a plane should not be on the heart side. 

For finishing purposes iron planes are used. Those of 
English make are heavy and solid, with rosewood mountings, 
the stock being made either of cast or malleable iron, or gun- 
metal. The American planes are lighter, and flimsy in con- 
struction compared with those of English make, and are con- 
sequently cheaper, but they do not produce such a fine surface, 
nor last as long. French planes are sometimes preferred, but 
the choice of tools is a matter of individual experience. 

The cutting action of such tools as planes, chisels, and 
spokeshaves is similar to that of the wedge. The bevelled 
edge of the plane iron lifts or splits the fibres of the wood 
and produces a shaving, the thickness of which is determined 
by the depth of the iron's edge protruding beyond the sole of 
the plane. In a like manner a paring chisel is forced under the 
fibres, and separates them as a wedge does. A saw crushes the 

fibres, whilst a file, rasp, or glass-paper reduces the surface of the wood to 

powder by continuous friction. 

Action of Back Iron. — Fig. 1 shows a cutting iron with the "back" or 

"cap" iron fixed. This back iron breaks the shaving as it passes into the 

mouth, as shown in f. 2A, 

whilst f. 21: illustrates the 

action of the single iron 

tearing the fibres. The 

edge of the back iron is 

set close to the cutting 
of the other, the 

distance varying slightly 

in different planes. In 

the "jack " it would be 

a full ,',. in., and less in 

trying and iron planes. The cap iron should "bed" down quite flat to the 

surface of the cutting iron, or shavings will be forced between them, and the 

mouth Income choked. The best plane irons are "gauged" to equal thickness 

from end to end, and those not gauged get thinner towards the top, and as the 




I. Cutting and 
Cap Iron. 




1 \. 



Cutting Action of Plane with and without liack Iron. 



TOOLS— APPLIANCES— MATERIALS 7 

iron wears away the cutting space in the mouth is widened, which prevents 
fine work being done. The " pitch " of a plane iron is the angle at which 
it is set in the stock, and 45 deg. is known as the cabinet " pitch " in a 
trying plane. There are, however, other planes which have no back iron 
at all, but their cutting irons are set at a much lower pitch, and their edges 
are much closer to the mouth, whilst in the "bull nose," "chariot," and 
"shoulder" planes, the bevels of the cutting irons are also reversed. Fig. 
1 below shows the angle of the iron in a trying plane, and if 10 deg. are 
taken off for the "basil" or grinding slope, the actual cutting angle is 35 deg., 
which is made less in sharpening. Fig. 2 shows the " smoothing " plane 
iron at an angle of 50 deg., which is lessened as in the last named. The 
higher the pitch the nearer to a scraping action, as in the "toothing" plane, 
with a single iron at an angle of 80 deg. Fig. 3 is the " shoulder " plane, with 





Angles of Trying and Smoothing Planes. 



Angle of Shoulder Plane. 




4. Angle of Chariot Plane. 



5. Angle of Bull Nose 
Plane. 




6. Angle of Wood Rebate 
Plane. 



an iron sloping at 20 deg., and as the basil is reversed the cutting angle is 
from 25 deg. to 30 deg. Fig. 4, the "chariot," and f. 5, the "bull nose" planes, 
whilst f. 6 shows the wooden "rebate" plane, with a slope of 50 deg., and the 
basil set in the usual way, giving a cutting angle of about 40 deg. The 
escapement in this plane is inclined to the face of the iron, a provision 
which takes the place of a back iron, and breaks the shaving. In the iron 
rebate plane the angle is lowered to 30 deg., and time and long usage have 
proved that these angles are the best for the special work which the plane 
has to do. 

Following the above details it is only necessary to give a brief description 
of the planes as they are shown on next page. 

Jointer Plane, f. 1, 26 to 30 in. long, 3 in. sole. Used to shoot long joints, 
dining-table tops, &c. Also made in iron up to 24^ in. 



8 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




Various Planes. 



TOOLS— APPLIANCES— MATERIALS 9 

Trying, or Trueing-up Plane, f. 2, usual size 22 by 3^ in. taking in 2i-in. 
iron. Used for all purposes in trueing-up and preparation work. Shorter ones 
are also known as " panel planes," some of which have a removable slip, so that 
the edge of the iron can be worked close in for sunk bevels on panels. 

Jack Plane, f. 3, 17 by 2\ in., and smaller with 2|-in. iron, used in "jack- 
ing-up " stuff, or roughly preparing for the try plane. 

Smoothing Plane, f. 4, usual size 8 by 3 in., with 2^-in. iron, but varying 
in smaller sizes. Its name implies its use, that of smoothing and finishing. 
These planes are sometimes faced with steel, or have steel fronts as in f. 5. 

Toothing Plane, f. 6, with a single iron, milled so that the edge resembles 
saw teeth. Used for toothing surfaces in preparation for veneering. Also 
useful for cleaning off, previous to scraping. 

Bismarck, or Roughing Plane, f. 7, a single iron plane for taking off the 
dirt and first rough surface of boards. 

Iron Panel, or Jointer Plane, f. 8, from 13A to 26J in. English make 
with rosewood fittings. Can be used for joints or finishing. An extremely 
useful plane for all types of work. 

Iron Smoothing Plane, f. 9, with block fitting, and f. 10, with a handle. 
These iron planes are fitted with a screw in place of the wooden wedge for 
fixing the irons. 

Iron Shoulder Plane, f. 11, of malleable iron or gun-metal, 8 in. long, from 
1 to 1 \ in. wide. Always a handy plane to cabinetmakers for shooting 
shoulders, short veneer joints, &c. It is made with square or skew mouth, and 
single iron. 

Iron Rebate Plane, f. 12, from 6 to 9 in. long, I to i| in. wide, and fitted 
with one or two single irons. 

Router, or "Old Woman's Tooth," f. 13, usually made of beech with a 
mouth to take a plough iron. Used for routing out grooves across the grain 
in wide stuff. 

Bull Nose Plane, f. 14, iron or gun-metal, 1 to i| in. wide, for finishing 
off stopped rebates and angles where other planes could not be worked. Single 
iron. 

Mitre Plane, f. 15, also made in wood, with low pitch and single iron for 
shooting mitres. 

Chariot Plane, f. 16. — A small thumb plane with single iron and mouth 
near the front as in the " bull nose," but the sides are not open. Used for 
smoothing and finishing small work. 

Compass Plane, f. 17. — The sketch shows the American patent with a 
thin steel sole which can be adjusted by a screw to any curve, either convex or 
concave. This is one of the many patents known as " Stanley " planes. 
" Wooden Compass " are similar to smoothing planes, but have a curved sole, 
and a brass or iron stop in the front to vary the curve. 

The Plough, f. 11, p. 16, is an expensive tool, but with care will last a 
lifetime. It is really an adjustable plane for grooving, and should have a 
set of eight irons. 

Wooden Rebate Plane, f. 10, p. 16, with single iron from f to if in. wide, 
and made with box sole or slip. 



io MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

Side Rebate Planes are made in wood or iron in right and left pairs, 
and are used for trimming the sides of rebates and grooves. 

Moulding Planes, such as "ogee," "ovolo," and hollows and rounds are 
supplemental tools, some of which a cabinetmaker should possess. Hollows 
and rounds are numbered in pairs, of which eighteen pairs make a full set. 
Moulding planes go by widths. Other pairs are the "rule joint," "hook joint," 
" groove and tongue, or matching " planes. Bead planes are sold singly. 

The Side Fillister is a rebating plane with a movable fence on the sole 
and a screw stop for depth, as well as a spur for cutting the wood in advance 
of the iron. A "Trenching" or Dado Grooving Plane is of a somewhat similar 
make. Chamfer planes are also made in wood and iron. The "Stanley" 
group of planes include patent combinations of the moulding, grooving, plough- 
ing, and other tools, as well as the ordinary try, jack, and smoothing planes. 



SAWS. 
Hand, Back, and Frame Saws. 

Hand Saw, f. i opposite. In grade, known as " Rip," " Half Rip," " Hand," 
and " Panel," with straight or skew backs. Blades from 20 to 28 in. long, and 
handles of apple or beech. A good blade will be thinner at the back than 
in the front for easy working. The "Rip" has coarse teeth numbering four 
to the inch, and getting wider nearer the handle ; angle of teeth 90 and 30 deg. ; 
the Half Rip is not quite so coarse, and, as their name indicates, they are used 
for ripping down thick stuff in the direction of the grain. The Hand Saw 
proper is of more general use for cutting both ways — blade about 26 in. and 
teeth six to the inch, or the number may vary in all saws. The Panel Saw 
is shorter, thinner, and finer, and is used for cutting thinner stuff. The 
Compass Saw has a narrow tapering blade, for work which a wider one 
could not do. 

Bow, or Frame Saw, f. 2, for cutting curves and shaped work. A 
thin blade 10, 12, or 14 in. long, £ and I in. wide, fixed between two uprights 
and pulled taut by the string and bar. The blade can be turned to any angle 
by twisting the handle at both ends. Foreign workmen use frame saws with 
wide blades, and chairmakers also cut their curves with double handed frames 
held upright. Fret and Marquetry Saw Frames are much slighter and 
narrower, and are usually made of steel. The blades are very fine and are 
sold in bundles of a dozen. 

Keyhole, or Pad Saw, f. 3, from the pad or socket which also serves 
as a handle into which the blade passes when not in use. The blade, which 
tapers, is fixed by two screws at the nozzle of the pad. 

Back Saws. — These are used for finer work, and can only penetrate 
the wood to a given depth owing to the ridge of iron, or brass, which 
runs along the top of the blade and is known as the "back." In section, this 
" back " is split and tapers slightly from the top, thus forming a spring to 
hold the blade and keep it flat and rigid. When the blade works loose it 



TOOLS— APPLIANCES— MATERIALS 



ii 




Hand, Back and Frame Saws and Chisels. 



12 MODERN CABINETWORK, EURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

is liable to buckle, and can be set right again by a careful and gradual adjust- 
ment of the back by tapping it on the top edge until its increased grip has 
restiffened the blade. The brass backs are superior to the iron, as they give 
an additional weight to the saw. These saws vary in length from 8 to 14 in. 
on blade. The longest is commonly known as the Tenon Saw, f. 4, p. 11, from 
its use in cabinet work for cutting tenons and shoulders. The teeth are usually 
placed twelve to the inch and T V deep, but, as in all saws, this depends entirely 
on the type of work to be done, but twelve to an inch is coarse enough for 
general use. The smaller " back " saws are better known as Dovetail Saws, 
f. 5, used, as their name implies, in cutting the finer joints. The construction 
is the same as in the tenon saw, but the blade is thinner and not so deep, 
and the teeth are cut about fifteen to the inch and more, as the fineness of the 
work requires. For exceptionally small and fine work these saws are made 
with 4 or 6 in. blades and a turned handle. 

Saw Sets. — To make a clear entry for a saw it is necessary that its teeth 
should cut a passage wider than the thickness of the blade. This is done by 
" setting " or bending the teeth alternately to the right and left with a tool 
known as a " saw set," which is cut to take various thicknesses and has an 
adjustable gauge to prevent an over set. The setting is done by inserting 
the tooth in the cut and pressing the handle downwards. Care must be taken 

that there is not too much set and that it is 
)| equal on both sides, or the saw will run. 

•£ ill ^Se3 I Setting is also done with a hammer by 

%llllll!lii lllWj^HlM I 4. -i ■ 4.1. * «.u • -i ■ 1 

v™!*^ ^VJL_JL_l 1 1 1 y striking the teeth on a vice or anvil made 

O for the purpose, but the gauge method is 

A Saw Set. the safest. In sharpening a saw, the edges 

of the teeth are slightly bevelled alternately 

in opposite directions, and the set should be put on after the sharpening. 

Saws often work loose at the handle, and a forked turnscrew, f. 7, p. 14, is used 

to tighten them up. 

Chisels. — For all ordinary purposes a Firmer Chisel, f. 6, p. 11, is used. 
As its name denotes, it is shorter, thicker, and so firmer than the long paring 
chisel, f. 7, and which generally has a bevelled edge. Handles for chisels 
are usually made of ash, hornbeam, beech, or box, and are round or octagonal. 
The latter is better for the grip, and is least likely to roll off the bench. Chisels 
are made in sets of twelve from y 1 ^ to 2 in. wide, but can be bought in half sets 
or singly, with or without handles. 

Mortise Chisels, f. 8, with beech handle. A thick leather washer should 
be inserted at the joint where the tang enters the wood to prevent splitting. 

Gauges. — Fig. 9 is a Marking Gauge, made of beech, with box screw 
or wedge, f. 10, and a steel pin for the marker. 

The Cutting Gauge, f. 11, is of the same shape and wood, but with 
a brass wedge and steel blade for the cutter. This cutter is bevelled with a 
slightly rounded face, which is always placed inside near the stock, to ensure 
a clean cut. As the pressure on the gauge is in a forward direction, there would 
be a tendency for the cutter to run inwards if the bevel were on the outside, 
and so spoil or injure the work in hand. Mortise Gauge, f. 12, p. II. — This 



TOOLS— APPLIANCES— MATERIALS 



13 



gauge has double markers, and is more elaborately made. The inside point is 
fixed to a brass bar which is grooved into the stem, and is flush with its surface. 
At the end of the stem a thumb-screw is attached to the bar which enables the 
point to be adjusted to any width required, after the screw in the stock has been 
loosened. These gauges are usually made of rosewood or ebony, but the cheaper 
ones have no thumb-screw attachment. Panel Gauge, f. i, with a long stem and 
wide fence, which has a rebate on the inside under edge, and a Tee Gauge, f. 2, 
which has a length- 
ened fence to clear 
any projections, 
and can be fitted 
with a long point or 
pencil for gauging 
ingrooves orpanels 
below the working 
surface. These two 
gauges can be 
bought, but they are mostly made by the workman, and are best in hardwood. 




1. A Panel Gauge. 



BORING TOOLS. 

The Brace, f. 14 & 15, p. 14, sometimes called a "stock," is used for boring 
purposes, and is made with expanding jaws to take any " bit." The most service- 
able brace is of American pattern and English make. Some are fitted with a 
ratchet for reverse action, by which a hole can be bored near the floor or in a 
position where it is not possible to take the whole sweep. The best in quality 
have ball bearings, and are nickel-plated. The width of sweep varies from 6, 

8, and 10 in., the 6 in. being the one 
generally used for ordinary work. 

Bits are made with square and 
tapering shanks to fit the jaws of a 
brace, whilst the boring points are 
of many and differing shapes. Fig. 
1, p. 14, is a Centre Bit, made in all 
sizes up to 2 in. Fig. 2, Spoon or 
Pin Bit; f. 3, Shell Bit, and f. 4, 
the Nose Bit ; all of which are used 
for boring across the grain. Fig. 5, 
the Gimlet or Swiss Bit for quick 
boring in soft woods. Fig. 6, Screwdriver, or Turnscr^ew Bit, used in a brace 
for driving screws home ; and f. 7 is the Split Turnscrew for tightening up screws 
in saw handles. Fig. 8, the Twist or Jenning's Bit, a quick, clean borer both 
ways of the grain. Those with short twists are known as Dowel Bits. Fig. 9 
is the Rose Countersink for enlarging the splay in a hole to take the head of 
a screw. Though specially made for brass, it can be used for metal or wood. 
Fie. 10, one for iron, and f. 11, the Snail Countersink for wood. For very 
large holes, there are patent bits with expanding cutters boring up to 5 in. dia- 




2. A Tee Gauge. 



, 4 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




Brack and Bits. 



TOOLS— APPLIANCES— MATERIALS 15 

meter, see f. 12 opposite. A patent cylindrical centre bit with four cutters is 
shown in f. 13; it bores clean, and can be obtained from § up to if in. in 
width. Rimers are bits for enlarging holes, and are square or half round in 
section, and tapering to a point. The Shell Rimer is half round but hollow, 
whilst the others are solid, and are used chiefly for metal. Drills, with an 
Archimedean stock, are often used for small holes in very fine work. Stock 
Drills are usually preferred for boring in hard woods, as they do not drift in 
boring. They are fixed in an ordinary brace, and can be obtained in the usual 
sizes. A Brace Bit Holder is a handy substitute for the brace when it cannot 
be used. It is a box or hardwood handle similar to that on a gimlet, with a 
square tapering hole to take the shank of the bit, and is very useful for riming. 
Bradawls and Gimlets are hand-boring tools which need no illustration. They 
are really bits fixed in a handle, and are useful where the brace is not necessary 
or where a hole is required to start a nail. A Marking Awl is a thin steel 
pointer fixed in a handle, and is used for setting or " marking" out. It is often 
combined with a Marking Knife at the other end, and both are used for the 
same purpose, the knife chiefly for soft, and the marker for hard woods. 

A Sliding Bevel, f. 4, p. 16, and a 6-in. Square, f. 8 & 9, are indispensable 
tools, and are made of rosewood or ebony, with a steel blade and a brass plate 
on the inside edge. Larger squares for carcase work can be bought, but are 
usually made in the workshop, and are best in mahogany. This also applies to 
Set Squares for testing inside angles. 

Spokeshaves are made of wood, box, or beech, f. 6, p. 16, and iron, f. 7. 
They are a form of plane with a single blade, and a cutting angle of 10 deg. 
The face of the blade is slightly concave, whilst the stock can be rounded on 
the face to suit any curve. In wooden shaves the blade is sprung into the 
stock and held by the two ends or tangs, which enter a tapering hole. The 
American iron shaves have a small iron similar to a plane which is held in place 
by a thumb-screw. The sizes of spokeshaves go according to length of blade, 
from 1 \ to 4 in., and it is important to remember that the burr is not rubbed 
off the face of the blade in sharpening. 

Screwdrivers are made in various sizes and shapes, the " London " pattern 
having a broad flat blade and flat handle, and those known as " cabinet " drivers 
a round blade and oval handle. Thumb drivers 1 to 2 in. on the blade are 
extremely handy where a longer blade cannot be used. 

Oilstones are of various quality and manufacture. The " Washita " is a 
good one for all-round use, and the " Turkey " for a keen finished edge. 
" Charnley Forest " is a slow cutter, but is also good for finishing, and 
" Arkansas " is a first-class satisfactory stone. All the above are natural 
stones, whilst the one known as "India Oilstone" is a composition, light 
brown in colour, and has the advantage of not being so liable to break if 
knocked down. It is also a fast cutter, and does not wear down as much as 
the others. Slip stones for gouges can be obtained in all the above qualities. 
Oilstones should be cased in wood, set in plaster of Paris, and covered with 
a lid. They need to be frequently rubbed down, either on a flat stone with 
sand, or on a sheet of emery cloth. Sweet oil with a little paraffin is the best 
for sharpening purposes. In choosing an oilstone it is as well to remember 



16 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




Bench and Miscellaneous Tools. 



TOOLS— APPLIANCES— MATERIALS 17 

that there are good and bad qualities in all kinds, but the cutting power of a 
stone can be tested by rubbing the thumb nail on it, and if it grips the nail 
it can safely be chosen as a fast cutter. 

Files are made in various sections, as fiat, half round, round (known as 
rat tail), square, and three-cornered (known as saw files), all cut for wood or 
metal. The cuts are known as " single " and " double " for saw files, " bastard " 
for wood, and " smooth " for metal. Flat files are made with one " safe " or 
smooth edge, as those for making keys, known as " warding" files. 

Rasps are made in similar sections to files, but instead of cuts across 
the surface, they are chipped all over in such a way as to raise coarse cutting 
points. Rifflers are curved files and rasps. 

Many Mitre Cutting Tools are made in the shop, such as the 
Mitre Block, for small work ; the Mitre Box, for cornice mouldings ; the 
Mitre Shooting Board, a combination with the ordinary shooting board ; 
the improved Mitre Shooting 

Block, with wood or iron ^ ** — ~ t _— _ _ » J^ = ^ : ^^W = ^^ h ~ZI^IJ^ i . 

screw, see sketch ; and the ■ . _ ^lll l uy Sl ' - ^twm UiHuu ' " w r^rfri 

"Donkey's Ear," for shooting V^-7>- j|i^ "' ' ^k W I y5I1$l_ 

right mouldings ; the Mitre ^ ^j^^^-^l- - "" ^ - - - ~- - "^.3\y 

Template, in wood or metal, Improved Mitre Shooting Block. 

all of which are illustrated in 

the chapter on " Workshop Practice." Mitre Cramps are patent tools used by 

picture frame makers. 

Cramps are usually supplied by the shop, and are made both in wood 
and iron, the best make having a bar with a T section, to which a lengthening 
bar can be attached for a long job. Small G -shaped cramps or Thumb-Screws 
are always useful. 

Hand-Screws are generally found by the shop, but most cabinetmakers 
like to have a few of their own, especially small ones. The Hand-Screw, 
f. 2 opposite, with two screws made of beech, which if black leaded will work 
sweeter, is bought in sizes from 4 to 18 in. measured along the chop, and 
sold at one penny per inch. The Hand-Screw, f. 3 opposite, with single screw, 
has a more direct pressure, but cannot be used in as many ways as p. 2. 
The strongest make has a bolt right through to strengthen the joints, and 
the screws work sweeter if black leaded. Very small hand-screws are useful 
for fixing fine mouldings, but a good substitute for them is the wire " dog " 
or split chair spring, and the patent spring clothes' peg is very handy for 
similar purposes. 

The Bench, shown in f. 1 opposite, with beech or birch top, in sizes 
from 4 to 8 ft., is fitted with vice and tail screws in wood or iron accord- 
ing to price. An all-round useful size is 5 ft. 6 in., which with iron screws 
will cost seventy-five shillings, and with wood screws sixty shillings. It is 
fitted with drawer, trough, and two iron stops, which with the tail screw make 
a convenient cramp for holding stuff and glueing up. A hole can be 
bored through the top to take an iron Holdfast. To make the bench 
more useful, holes can be bored down the leg, into which a pin can be 



i8 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

placed at convenient heights for supporting long stuff when being worked in 
the vice, or the bottoms can be boarded in as a shelf. A grease box can be 
fixed on the end, as well as a stop for cutting against. For home use the 
cabinetmaker will find the English-made bench with double wood screw, 
4 ft. 6 in. long, at twenty-one shillings, both serviceable and cheap, whilst the 
patent iron grip vices can be fixed to any bench. 

There are many tools, such as the hammer, mallet, pincers, &c, which need 
no special description, but they are named in the following list, which is given 
as a specimen "kit" for a cabinetmaker. The sizes are suggested, with their 
cost price. The figures have been supplied by Messrs Tyzack & Sons, 
Old Street, E.G., but they are subject to fluctuation. 

A Kit of Tools. 

Trying plane, 22 in., gauged iron 

Jack plane, 17 in., gauged iron 

Smoothing plane, gauged iron 

Bismarck (roughing), single iron - 

Toothing plane ... 

Circular (compass) plane, adjustable, Stanley 

Rebate plane, 1 in., skew mouth 

Side rebate planes, one pair - 

Iron shoulder plane, ij in., malleable 

Iron rebate plane, § in., malleable 

Iron panel plane, 12^ in., English make 

Iron smoother plane, English make - 

Iron bull nose plane, i|- in. - 

Chariot plane, i\ in. - 

Hollows and rounds, half a set, nine pairs 

Bead planes, \ and | in. 

Firmer chisels, eight, y 1 ^ up to 1 in. - 

Bevelled edge paring chisels, - { in., i in., and f in. 

Mortise chisels, \ in., -J in., § in. 

Squares, 6 in., 12 in. (20 in. wood, for carcase work, home made) 

Set mitre, 10 in. 

Sliding bevel, 9 in. - - - - 

Striking knife and marking awl 

Hammers, two - .... 

Pincers and cutting nippers - 

Oilstone (India), slips, and can 

Screwdrivers (two), and one "thumb" driver 

Mallet, 5-in. head - 

Hand saw, 26 or 28 in. 

Panel saw, 24 in. - 

Tenon saw, 14 in., brass back 

Dovetail saw, 10 in. ------ 

Bow saw, 12 in. 

Pad, or keyhole saw - ... 

Small steel frame saw - 

Rule, 2 or 3 ft., four fold - 

Scraper, 5 by 3 in. and sharpener 

( 'ml. rubber - - - - - - • - 

Files, various, wood and metal 

Rasps, various -.-... 

Mortise gauge, with set screw - - - - 



£0 


7 








5 








4 


3 





1 


9 





3 


3 





10 


3 





2 


4 





5 


6 





14 








10 


6 


I 


7 


6 





18 


6 





7 








7 





I 


19 


6 





5 








5 








3 


1 





4 


10 





4 


10 





2 


4 





2 











4 





2 


2 





1 


1 





7 


6 





2 


6 





1 


2 





5 


6 





4 


6 





6 


6 





5 








3 


9 





1 


4 





1 


6 





1 











1 1 








2 





4 








1 


6 





4 


O 



TOOLS— APPLIANCES— MATERIALS 



19 



Cutting gauge 

Marking gauge 

Panel gauge, home made 

Ratchet brace, English made 

Twist bits, I in., £ in., § in., h in., " Jenning's dowel " 

Spoon bits, ^ in., i in., ^ in., \ in. 

Centre bits (black), i\ in., 1 in., J- in., f in., £ in. - 

Countersinks (rose), \ in., h in. 

Turnscrew and forked turnscrew bits 

Dowel rounder 

Bench holdfast 

Compasses, one pair .... 

Thumb-screws (six), G pattern 

Dowel plate, four holes 

Mitre shooting block, with iron screw 

Mitre cut, home made 

Mitre template, brass 

Firmer gouges, \ in., h in., f in. 

Scribing gouges, \ in., | in. - 

Carving gouges, straight, \ in., £ in., ^ in. - 

Bradawls, six assorted ... 

Gimlets, three assorted 

Veneering hammer (home made) 

String gauge (home made) - - - - 

Scratch stock (home made) - 

Punches (two) ------ 

Small glue-pot - 

Router (old woman's tooth) 

Plough with irons 

Tongueing and grooving planes, one pair 

Bolting iron for shooting locks 

Spokeshave, wood - 



£0 





10 








8 





5 


3 





4 


9 





1 


2 






1 




10A 
8" 








7h 





1 








4 


6 





1 








io 








1 


1 





12 


6 





1 


6 





2 


1 





1 


7 





1 


9 





1 








1 


c 



4 
6 

3 

o 

6 

o 

1 1 



In many instances such a kit of tools may take years to collect, but 
an apprentice or beginner should commence early and buy good ones. A 
start can be made with just the necessary tools as follows : — Trying, jack, 
and smoothing planes, hand, tenon, and dovetail saws, oilstone, hammer, rule, 
screwdriver, square, oilcan, two gauges, mallet, pincers, and three firmer 
chisels, at a cost of £2. 7s. A brace and bits, scraper, rebate plane, spoke- 
shave, mortise chisel and gauge should be got as time goes on and as 
the need arises. Such a " kit " must of necessity be kept in a chest. A 
handy size is 3 ft. 3 in. by 21 in. by 21 in. deep, made of good yellow 
deal or pine, dovetailed together, and painted black or dark green. It should 
have a small plinth piece planted round, and the lid can be made to lap 
over the front and ends. The chest will need a good spring lock and two 
strong handles. Fig. 1, p. 20, shows an arrangement for inside drawers and 
trays, of oak or mahogany, which should be made to half the width and 
slide from back to front. At the bottom of these is a sliding panel to 
enclose the lower space in which moulding planes can stand upright against 
the front and be easily recognised. The lid can be recessed, if desired, as a 
suitable place for saws and squares, and either enclosed or left open. Fig. 2, p. 20, 
shows the plan of the chest open. The top could be divided into three boxes 
with flaps, as shown, or made with drawers like the section. Another arrange- 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



ment would be to make a case and fit it with drawers, but in the former 
suggestion the trays can be divided up to take the tools as required. There 
are many " extras " which a cabinetmaker soon collects, such as bench brush, 
set squares, grease box, tape and sponge, &c, which take up room and need 
their proper places, and to provide them is a task which becomes a pleasure to 
a craftsman interested in his tools. 

Stoves for heating glue and providing a "hot plate" vary according to 
the size of the shop. The enclosed stove for coal, with chimney pipe attached, 
is effective for all small purposes, and serves as a good warming table. Gas and 
oil stoves are also made both for glue and hot plates, but steam tables and 
stoves are in general use in larger shops, and have the advantage of always 
being ready and also of warming the shop. Patent stoves are now made, 

either fixed or portable, to which 



li 



%, 



TRAY 



1 



TRAY 



v SLIDINa PANEV. 



i. Section of Tool Chest. 



can be attached either gas or electric 
heating power. Veneer presses are 
necessary in shops where any large 
veneers are laid, and where steam is 
used there is an iron press with 
heater underneath. The other forms 
of presses are given in the chapter 
on Veneering. 

Glue is made from hides, 
intestines, and hoofs of animals, 
and the skins and refuse of fishes. 
These substances are boiled and 
filtered into cooling troughs, where 
they thicken to a jelly in suitable 
blocks from which the cakes are 
cut. These cakes are then stamped, 
scored, and hung out to dry, during 
which time they lose about half their 
bulk. They are then ready for the 
market. Good glue should be clear 
and transparent, not muddy, and 
should break brittle and clean. In qualities, the Scotch is the best for 
general purposes, the commoner kind being known as Town glue. Salisbury 
glue is a specially good quality, and is sold in thinner and smaller cakes than 
the Scotch. Liquid fish glue has the advantage of being ready for use, not 
needing to be made hot, but it takes longer to dry. Russian glue is made 
up in small white cakes ; and what is known as marine or waterproof glue is 
run into boxes, but it is extremely doubtful if any glue can be made quite 
waterproof. In large shops glue is put into cold water to soak until it becomes 
a thick jelly ; it is then boiled off and strained into a pan from which, when 
cold, it can be cut and put into the pots and heated off for the workshop. If 
left too long in the pan it will decompose and become unfit for use. In an 
ordinary way the cake is broken up — between a piece of sacking — into small 
pieces, put into the pot until three parts full, and then well covered with water. 



2. Plan of Tool Chest. 



TOOLS— APPLIANCES— MATERIALS 21 

The boiling off should be gradual. A white froth will appear on the top, which 
is the lime in the glue, and should be skimmed off. Care should be taken that 
the water in the outside pot does not boil away or the glue will burn and lose 
its quality, and that pots are free from dirt and grease. On no account should 
glue be used which is not thoroughly boiled off, and it is better to strain it, 
if possible, before a final heating. 

Nails, screws, and glass-paper are described in Chapter V. 



THE CARE OF TOOLS. 

With a little care, tools will work the sweeter and last the longer. When 
new planes are bought they should be well soaked with linseed oil by filling 
up the mouth with a wedge of soft wood and then 
pouring the oil into the escapement. The oil will soak 
through the pores and help to set the wood, but it 
must not be overdone. After the week's work, planes 
should be rubbed over with the oil rag. A sheath for 
the saws — just a kerf in the edge of a bit of f-in. stuff — 
will save the teeth. Bits are best kept in a baize bag, 
with a division for each one, and iron planes are safer if 
treated in the same way, or kept in wood cases with a 
piece of baize at the bottom. Chisels in a drawer should 
lie alternate ways, and it is economical never to put 
them away blunt. Oilstones should be kept covered, 
and too much oil left on tends to harden the stone. 
When planes wear down they need remouthing. The 

diagram shows how this may be done, and if a bit of good dry beech is 
not available, rosewood or box is the best to use. New planes sometimes 
choke and the mouth may need filing back, or the edge of the back iron 
is too thick, or does not bed well. " Chatter " in a plane is also due to 
the irons not bedding properly. The soles of wood planes wear irregularly 
and need shooting with an iron one, and care must be taken to get the 
sole true in the length. If tools are kept in good order they save labour 
and make work easier. 




Remouthing a Plane. 



CHAPTER III. 

DRAWING— GEOMETRY— PERSPECTIVE-DESIGN— 
TECHNICAL TERMS. 



Value of Drawing — How to begin — Instruments — How to make and use them — 
Materials — Geometry : Plane and Solid — Its necessity and use in Practical Work 
— Scales — Figures — Projection — Perspective — Technical and Workshop Terms. 

A KNOWLEDGE of drawing is essential to a good craftsman and especially 
to a cabinetmaker. In ordinary work he must be able to read a scale or 
full-size drawing and interpret a plan or a section. A foreman or "setter 
out " must be capable of translating one from the other, and know enough 
of detail and construction to draw them in a practical and legible manner. 
To a young beginner the best thing to do is to attend an evening class and 
accept the course of work advised by the instructor, and also to practise at 
home. The latter is possible to all, and a good beginning is to measure up 
a table or chest of drawers and draw it to a convenient scale in front and end 

elevation, plan and section. Details such as mould- 
ings, carving, or turning, should be carefully studied 
and drawn full size if possible. By close attention 
and frequent practice the difficulties of first attempts 
should be overcome, and the necessity for continued 
effort in the early years of their career cannot be 
too strongly urged upon all who wish to excel in the 
various branches of their craft. This chapter will 
deal with elementary principles and practical methods 
applied to drawing for cabinetmakers in a general 
way. 

INSTRUMENTS. — The most serviceable Drawing- 
Board is one made of pine, well braced at the back with mahogany, which is slot 
screwed to allow for shrinkage (see sketch). For all-round purposes an imperial 
size, 30 by 22 in., is the most useful, but the board should be made a little larger. 
It can be bought for 5s., or, if made, there must be a careful selection of first 
quality pine, dry and free from shakes. To secure the least amount of warpage, 
cut the n-in. boards into two or three strips and rejoint them after reversing 
the edges. Then plane them carefully flat and square, gauge to thickness, and 
finish the face side with glass-paper, rubbing both ways. The pieces to brace 
the back should be of i-in. stuff about 31 in. wide, and straight grained with 
brass slots inserted for the screws in the position shown. 




A Braced Drawing Board. 



DRAWING— GEOMETRY— PERSPECTIVE, ETC. 



23 



Tee Square. — To suit the board a 30-in. blade is necessary, and one that 



Those sold are usually made of 
the more expensive ones are of 




Tee and Set Squares. 



tapers, as in f. below, is the best to have. 

pearwood, and cost about 2s. 6d., whilst 

mahogany with an ebony edge. If made, 

mahogany is the best wood to use, and 

the stuff must be carefully selected. The 

thickness of the blade should not be less 

than I in., and the taper from 4 to 2 in. 

with a slight bevel on the top of the 

straightedge. The headpiece for a 30-in. 

blade should be 12 in. long, 2 in. wide, 

and J in. thick, with a small bevel on 

the inside top edge, to clear any slight 

abrasion on the corner of the board. The 

blade is fixed to the headpiece with a little thin glue and brass screws, whilst 

two hardwood dowels give an added security. The square is best kept hung 

up by a hole bored in the blade. 

Set Squares. — These are made in pearwood, mahogany, vulcanite, or 
gelatine, the latter being transparent. Handy sizes are 6 in. for 45 degs. and 
8 in. for 60 degs. The solid ones, f. 3, p. 24, can be bought from 6d. upwards, 
but these are liable to warp. A better form is shown above, keyed at the 
joints and edged with ebony or pearwood. 

Instruments are sold separately or in complete sets. A small set can be 
bought from 15s., but a start can be made with the following single pieces: — 
A pencil compass with an adjustable pen, a pair of dividers, an upright ruling 
pen, and a metal or boxwood protractor used for obtaining angles. 

Pencils are graded as follows : — Very soft, BB ; medium, B — these are best 
for freehand drawing; HB, a little harder for general use ; F, a grade harder; 
and H, hard enough for geometrical drawing; whilst HH is suitable for very 
fine lines. For line work a pencil should be sharpened to a chisel point, 
but for freehand or sketching a round one is best. 

Paper. — Imperial cartridge 30 by 22 in. is a useful quality and size 
for ordinary purposes, but for pen and more finished work Whatman's hot 
pressed sheets are used. For working drawings use good lining paper or con- 
tinuous roll cartridge in varying qualities. It must be noted that there is 
a face side to paper, i.e., the smoothest. A moderately soft rubber should 
be used for cleaning out. To fix the paper on the board insert a pin at 
one of the top corners, then pass the hand over the surface diagonally to 
the opposite corner and fix another pin, repeating the process across the other 
diagonal. The paper should be fixed clear of the left hand and bottom edges 
of the board. For water-colour and special work the paper is stretched. This 
is done by well damping it in clean water and then pasting the edges to the 
board. In drying, the paper will become taut and ready for use. 

The Tee Square is held by the left hand, and the headpiece must be 
kept tight up to the board. Fig. above shows the tee and set squares in position. 
With practice it will be quite easy to slide the set square along whilst the 
tee square is held rigid and straight. A scale rule is useful, and can be 



24 



MODFRN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




^ 



E) A 

i. Method of Striking a 
Perpendicular Line. 



10 a s a 

2. Method of Striking a 

" Square" Line. 



bought from a shilling upwards, or a packet of single cardboard scales are 
obtainable. 

For "inking in," the liquid Indian ink as sold in 6d. and is. bottles is the 
best to use. This process requires practice and care. 
To fill the drawing pen, dip an ordinary pen into the 
ink, and insert the nib into the opening, drawing it 
back carefully against the edge, or a fine brush can be 
used in the same way. The screw will tighten or loosen 
the point according to the thickness of the line required, 
and the pen should be tried 
on an odd piece of paper 
first. Before commencing 
to use the pen, see that 
there are no loose ink spots 
on the outside, then hold it 
upright against the tee or 
set square edge, and carefully draw it from left to 
right. Curved lines should be drawn first, and 

straight ones carried 

into them ; where they cannot be done with 
a compass, the ordinary French curves are used. 
Some tee squares are bevelled on the under 
edge to prevent a blot if the ink happens to run, 
but this is not necessary if the pen is filled and 
used properly. All the diagrams in this book 
were drawn in the manner described above, and 
with a square edge. The pen should be care- 
fully wiped when done with. 

In pencil drawings, the lines should be put 
in lightly at first, and thickened when all details 
are drawn. For full-size working drawings a blue pencil is used for the sections, 
and red for the plans, or the section is outlined with a thin wash of colour. 
Sections are also shown by 
straight crossed lines, called 
" hatchings," and the outline of 
the moulding in a thick line, as 
seen in the sections of mould- 
ings throughout the book. Sepa- 
rate portions in the construction 
are distinguished by hatching 
in opposite directions. 

It is sometimes necessary 
to " fix " or " set " a charcoal or 
pencil drawing to prevent its 

being rubbed out, and to make it partially permanent. This is done with a 
liquid called " fixative," which is really a solution of shellac and methylated 
spirit. It is sprinkled on to the drawing through a blow-pipe. 




3. Drawing Parallel Lines 
with Set Squares. 




4. A Metal or Horn Protractor. 



DRAWING— GEOMETRY— PERSPECTIVE, ETC. 



25 




1. Dividing a Circle. 



Tracing is done through a specially prepared thin paper, which is nearly 
transparent, and can be bought from a penny a sheet upwards, according to 
quality. It is excellent practice for a young beginner as an aid to neat and 
quick work. The tracing paper must 
be carefully stretched and pinned over 
the drawing, and the tracing com- 
menced from the top downwards. Up- 
right lines should be drawn first, and 
an F pencil is the best grade for ordi- 
nary work. A drawing can be trans- 
ferred to another sheet by placing it 
flat on to the paper, and rubbing all 
over the back of it with a pencil. 
Patterns of fretwork, flat carving, or 
pierced work, such as chair backs, &c, 

are " rubbed " off by placing the paper on the pattern and rubbing all over it 
with black heel-ball. The holes will be left white, and the design shown where 
the heel-ball has touched the wood. 

To colour or " wash/' in a drawing of any size, a 
large camel-hair brush called a " mop " is used. It must 
be kept fairly full of wash and passed quickly over the 
drawing, commencing at the top and working down- 
wards from and to left and right alternately. To secure 
a flat even tone and surface, the brush must not be 
passed over twice until the first coat is quite dry. For 
detail work a hair brush is used, and in all instances the 
brushes should be well washed and cleaned, and left in 
shape when put away. 

Suitable colours for woods are as follows, but, of 
course, they must vary according to the wood and the 
tints required : — Rosewood, vandyke brown and rose madder with little yellow ; 
Oak, vandyke brown and little yellow ochre ; Mahogany, vandyke brown, lake 
and yellow ochre, with a little burnt sienna ; Satinwood, gamboge, yellow ochre, 
little vandyke brown ; Walnut, vandyke brown, 
Prussian blue, and a little crimson lake; Pine, yellow 
and a little brown. 

GEOMETRY. — It is only intended to give a few 
elementary examples which can be applied to practical 
and workshop needs. These may be supplemented by 
reference to a good text-book on the subject. To 
begin with lines. The tee square and set square are 
used in drawing horizontal and vertical lines respec- 
tively, but it might happen that a vertical line had to 
be drawn where these instruments were not available. 

In this case the methods shown in f. 1 opposite can be adopted, and failing 
a compass, a piece of string and a bradawl will do it. From point A strike 
a semicircle, cutting line in R ; with same radius strike off from B the points 




B A 

2. Method of Striking 
Mitres and Half 
Mitres. 




3. Striking an Equilateral 
Triangle. 



26 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



C and D ; from C and D strike arcs at E. From A draw a line through the 
intersection of the arcs. This will be the vertical or square line. As a second 
handy method, f. 2, p. 24, suppose it was desired to cross cut a board at right 

angles without the aid of a square. 
From the point A mark off 10 in. along 
the edge of the board ; take six of the 
inches and mark from A the arc at B ; 
then take the length of 10 in., and from 
number 8 mark another arc, cutting the 
first one at B. Through the intersection 
draw a line to point A, and the board 
can be cut off square. All this can be 
done with a two-foot rule. Geometri- 
cally this method is known as a scale of equal parts, and it can be used in 
other ways, e.g., to test the angle of the room. 

Parallel lines — other than horizontal — are drawn with the two set squares. 




1. Dividing a Line in Equal Parts. 




B 



2. Method of Constructing any Scale of Feet and Inches. 



Holding one firmly, the other is moved up or down, and lines drawn as shown 

in f. 3, p. 24. Lines at any angle are usually drawn with the aid of a protractor, 

a small rectangular instrument made of boxwood, or in metal, or horn, as a 

semicircle, upon which is marked the number of 

degrees contained in half a circle, of which there 

are 180. From this it is possible to mark off from 

.1 given spot a line at any angle. Fig. 4 shows 

the metal or horn protractor. Apart from the use 

of the protractor, it is useful to remember that the 

radius of a circle steps round its circumference 

exactly six times, so that a circle or semicircle can 

be easily divided up into twelve or six equal parts, 

as in f. 1, p. 25. This would be handy in setting 

<mt tops for veneering. As the angle BAG isoxidegs., 

or a right angle, D would be a line at 60 degs., and C one at 30 degs. A 

mitre, or line at 45 degs., usually the pitch of a cornice, is obtained by 

bisecting or halving a right angle, as in f. 2, p. 25. Draw the angle ABC, strike 

an arc from B, cutting both lines at A and c. With the same radius strike two 




Method of Dividing Fluted 
Pilasters in Equal Pro- 
portions. 



DRAWING— GEOMETRY— PERSPECTIVE, ETC. 



27 



more arcs from A and c, cutting each other in D. Through D draw a line into 
the corner at B, which will be the mitre line. The " half mitre " is obtained by 
bisecting the lower portion. Again, a line at 60 degs. can be easily obtained 
by the following method : — Suppos- 
ing that on a given line at point A, ^C 
f. 3, p. 25, the line is required, from A 
with any radius describe an arc cut- 
ting the line at B, from B strike a 
similar arc, cutting the other in C, a 
line through c to A is the one re- 
quired at 60 degs. If c also be joined 





1. Method of Constructing a Polygon 
on a Given Side. 



2. Method of Constructing a Polygon 
in a Given Circle. 



to B we get an equilateral or equal-sided triangle, or the sixth part of a hexagon. 

Problems which can be turned to practical account are those relating to 

proportion and the equal division of lines, by which scales are constructed. 

As a first example, take a line 

A B, 3 in. long, f. 1, p. 26, which 

has to be divided into seven 

equal parts. From A draw a 

line A C, at any angle, above or 

below, 30 degs. being the most 

convenient. From A cut off 

seven equal parts along A c, 

join number 7 to B, and from 

each of the other points draw 

parallel lines to it until they 

cut the line A B. a B will then 

be equally divided. This is 

easily applied to constructing a 
scale of feet and inches to any proportion. Fig. 2 shows how such a scale is 
made. Draw a line of indefinite length, A B. Suppose the scale is 2 in. to 
represent 1 ft., and feet and inches are to be shown. From A mark off lengths 





3. To Strike an Octagon 
in a Square. 



To Obtain Approxi- 
mate Circumference 
of a Circle. 



28 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



of 2 in. Draw a line at any angle from A as before, and mark off twelve equal 
divisions on it. From the twelfth draw a line to C, and complete the parallel 
lines as in the previous diagram. A C will then be divided into twelve parts 
for the inches, add as many 2-in. divisions along the line A B as you require 
feet, with numbers as shown, and the scale is complete. The inches must be 
numbered from right to left, an advantage easily seen if a length of i ft. 3 in. 
is wanted and taken off with the dividers. A double line gives a breadth to the 
scale, and enables the inches to be made plainer by alternate shading. 




1. A Trammel. 



This can also be applied in many ways to bench work. Suppose a frieze 
or gallery has to be divided intc a given number of parts ; instead of wasting time 
with compass or rule, reduce the rail to a convenient scale, treat it as a line A B 
and divide it as described above. Or again, when a smaller or larger pilaster 
has to be fluted, reeded, or moulded in proportion to another, it can be quickly 
set out by this method, see f. 3, p. 26, treating the given pilaster as the angle line 
A C in f. 1, and the one to be divided equally to it as A B. A further develop- 
ment of this principle applied to mouldings is seen in Chapter X. Coming 

now to the construction of the 
figures known as polygons, or 
many-sided figures, the penta- 
gon has five sides ; hexagon, 
six ; heptagon, seven ; octagon, 
eight ; nonagon, nine ; and 
decagon, ten, &c. These are 
frequently occurring in cabinet 
work. Fig. 1, p. 27, shows a 
general method of constructing 
any polygon when the length of 
the side is given. Let A B be 
the given side of a heptagon. At A erect a perpendicular, and with A B as 
radius strike an arc, cutting it in C. Divide this arc into seven equal parts, 
numbering from C. From A draw a line through number 2. Bisect A B, and 
draw a perpendicular, cutting the line at D, which is the centre of a circle, with 
DA as radius, in which the sides of the heptagon can be divided off and drawn. 
Fig. 2 illustrates the method of constructing any regular polygon within a 
given circle, a problem sometimes occurring in veneered work, and in setting 
out columns, &c. Strike the circle and the diameter A B. Divide into the same 





Section of Bar and Head 
of a Trammel. 



Side View of 
f. 2, p. 28. 



DRAWING— GEOMETRY— PERSPECTIVE, ETC. 



29 




1. Method of Striking an Ellipse with a Straightedge. 



number of parts as sides in the polygon, say five, and with A and B as centres, 

and radius A B, describe arcs meeting in C. From C, and through the second 

division, draw a line cutting the 

circle at D. The line A D is one 

side of the pentagon. The two 

methods described above apply 

to the making of any of the 

regular polygons, but there are 

quick and ready ways for draw- 
ing a hexagon or an octagon, 

forms which are often used for 

table tops, e.g., the sides of a 

hexagon are at an angle of 60 

degs., and can be quickly drawn 

with the set square, and in a like 

manner the octagon, with an 

angle of 45 degs. But suppose a square table has to be converted into an 

octagonal one, it can be set out 

with a pencil and rule, as in 

f. 3, p. 27. Draw the diagonals, 

and from each corner mark off 

a distance equal to half the dia- 
gonal, as at A B and CD. Re- 
peat this all round, and join the ( *'- -- ~"~ | ^/ 

points for the octagon. There 

are many other methods, but 

those described are the most 

practicable in their application 

to cabinet work. 

It is often necessary to 

measure the circumference of a 

circle or the length of a curve and to reduce it to a straight or " stretch " out 

line for setting out purposes. The string 
does not always serve, but the circumfer- 
ence of a circle is approximately 3! times 
its diameter. The diagram f. 4 shows a 
quick way of obtaining this. Draw the 
circle and its diameter, which is divided 
into seven equal parts ; three times the 
diameter and one part equals (approxi- 
mately) the circumference. An approxi- 
mate length of any curve or serpentine 
line can be obtained by drawing a 
straight line on a piece of tracing paper, 

and holding the line on the curve as near as possible, tick off lengths at short 

intervals whilst turning the straight line in the direction of the curve. Any 

kind of curve can be quickly measured in this way. 





'" \ V 







Method of Striking an Ellipse with String and Pins. 









IS 


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Jl 



To Strike an Elliptic Head to a Door. 



3° 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



15> 



The construction of " ovals " or, strictly speaking, ellipses, is a very 
important part of geometry for a cabinetmaker. The two best-known workshop 
methods are (i) by the use of an instrument called a trammel, and (2) by 
the aid of pins and string. The trammel is usually made by the cabinetmaker 
himself, and is shown in f. I, p. 28. The base, out of A-in. Cuba mahogany, is 
halved together and grooved, the grooves being about {' 6 in. deep. The ends are 
halved off to take a screw as shown if wanted for fixing. The bar should be 
made of good hard wood, rose, or satinwood, and into this are screwed two sliders 
to fit the groove, and these are left loose enough to allow the bar to revolve. 
The end of the bar is bored to take a pencil, with a small wedge to secure 
it. To set the trammel for working order, mark off from the pencil point 
to the centre of head half the short axis or width of the required ellipse, 
and set with wedges ; then from same point mark off half the long axis, 

or length, and fix 
the second head. The 
sliders should work 
easily up and down 
the groove. The base 
must be fixed or held 
firmly when the bar 
is moved round to 
complete the ellipse. 
Fig. 1 shows the tram- 
mel in the position of 
describing an ellipse, 
and f. 2 is a section of 
bar and head, and f. 3 
a side view of the slid- 
ing piece, but a more 
elaborate one can be 
constructed with metal 
heads through which 
the bar is passed, with a thumb-screw to adjust the points. 

Failing a trammel the same principle can be applied with a straightedge, 
f. 1, p. 29, or narrow piece of cardboard. Draw the long and short axes of the 
required ellipse, and from one end of the straightedge mark off half the short axis 
and also half the long one. These two points must be kept on the two lines 
as seen in diagram f. 1, and moved round slowly, as pencil marks are made 
at the end of the straightedge at short distances. On completing the four 
quarters, the ellipse can be finished freehand. This is a handy method, and 
another one well known in workshops is by using a piece of string and three 
pins as follows (see f. 2) : — Set out the long and short axes. From c mark 
off the length of half the long axis cutting it in A and B, at the points A, B, C, 
drive in three panel pins, and tightly tie a piece of thin twine around them 
as shown. Then pull out the pin at C, and firmly hold the pencil point 
in its place and move it round with the twine taut until the ellipse is 
complete. This method can only be used where it will not injure the wood 






"Elevations" and 

"Plan" of a Chest 

of Drawers. 



DRAWING— GEOMETRY— PERSPECTIVE, ETC. 



3i 



to knock in the pins, and where this objection arises either the last-named 
trammel method must be adopted, or a template of the ellipse prepared 
and the line marked from that. There is also another way which is sometimes 
used to set out an elliptic head to a door by intersecting lines (see f. 3, p. 29). 
This shows the top rail of the door, and the dotted line on it the height 
of the curve, whilst the middle line is the inside edge or rail, and represents 
the long axis of the ellipse. Below it draw another dotted line the same 
distance as the top one (this can be done by fitting a piece of pine in 
the same thickness as the rail), then draw the centre line or short axis. 
Divide the angles into five equal parts and carry the division across to the 
opposite one as shown. Draw lines through, and from the numbers as shown, 
and where they intersect the lines at corresponding numbers, the points are 
given to join up the ellipse freehand. A complete ellipse can be constructed by 
this method when others are not possible. 

All the above problems are known as plane geometry, or the treatment of 
flat surfaces. Other problems applied to 
practical work will be found in Chapter X., 
but when we come to the drawing of solids — 
such as a chest of drawers would be — other 
principles are necessary. When a scale 
drawing of a job is required, three views of it 
are usually given, i.e., the front, end, and plan, 
and in most instances all these are necessary. 
The elevation stands on a ground line and in 
the vertical plane. The plan should be drawn 
underneath — and a little below — the front 
view, and will rest in the horizontal plane. 
This is what is known as the orthographic 
projection, or right projection, as it gives 
correct views of an object, and is the method 
adopted in all drawings and designs of a prac- 
tical nature when real dimensions are neces- 
sary. The sketch opposite shows a chest of drawers drawn in this way, and to a 
young beginner the best illustration of the principle involved is to look at a chest 
standing against the wall. If the outline could be drawn on the wall and the 
bearers and fronts put in, we should then get a front elevation on the vertical 
plane represented by the wall. In the same way an end view would be shown, 
or projected on to, the right hand wall, another vertical plane. To get the plan, 
an exact outline of the top would be marked on the floor, which is the horizontal 
plane, and the intersecting line between the wall and the floor is shown on the 
paper as the ground line on which the chest is standing, so that the student 
must imagine the wall as lying flat on the paper, and the floor below the ground 
line, or as it is technically known, the X V line. This the student can easily illus- 
trate for himself by folding the paper up to form a right angle, and holding a note- 
book at one end, when the three planes are exhibited, then by turning the book 
into the vertical plane as though it were hinged on its inner edge, and laying the 
paper flat again, the position of the two elevations should be understood. 




Plan and Elevation of a Semi- 
circular Table. 



32 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



These views are essential if the correct shape of a job is to be known, e.g., 
of a semicircular or elliptic table, see p. 31. The elevations are straight while 

the plans give the real shape, as in f. 1 below, which 
shows a three-corner cabinet in a similar position. The 
true length and shape of the curved rails of the table 
and the sloping sides of the cabinet can only be shown 
on the plan. It is often necessary to give two, three, 
or more elevations, as in the case of fitments, and it is 
from these scale views that the foreman sets out the 
full-size working drawings and adds the details. The 
actual method adopted is given in the chapter on 
" Foreman's Work." 

For the simple or pictorial illustration of square 
and rectangular objects such as joints and parts of 

Uwork, an easy method is by oblique projection. In 
this, one face is always parallel to the V.P., and the 
lines of the other faces are drawn at any convenient 
angle, as in f. 2. In isometric projection, which is also 
used, the horizontal lines are drawn at an angle of 30 
degs., as in f. 3, and in both methods a 30-deg. set 
square can be used rapidly, whilst real measurements 
are struck off along the lines which are parallel to each 
other. Most of the joints in this book are drawn in 
oblique projection, but it must be clearly understood 
that these methods are only applicable to such small 
things, neither must they be confused with perspective. 
Perspective is a branch of drawing mostly used by 
draughtsmen, designers, and salesmen, and needs some 

hard study and continued practice to become 

efficient in it. The student should well master the 

principles of solid geometry first, and if possible 

attend a class where he can learn perspective 

drawing step by step. Failing this, he might 

begin by sketching simple objects, being above 

all careful to get a good view rather than a showy 

one. Continual practice alone can train the eye to 

correct views and quick drawing, whilst experience 

will soon show the best methods, and it is recog- 
nised that draughtsmen as a rule make their own. 

On the other hand, principles cannot be ignored, 

and it is necessary to understand them before 

striking an individual line. These principles are 

illustrated on p. 33, where the "setting up" of a 

table, chest, and room is briefly outlined. 

Several methods are adopted, and men 

specialise in perspective as in other branches. 

perspective," f. 1, is often utilised, 




Elevation and Plan 
of a Three-cornered 
Cabinet. 




Oblique " View. 




Isometric View. 



That termed " parallel 
but its principles, if applied to the 



DRAWING— GEOMETRY— PERSPECTIVE, ETC. 



33 



Fig.£. 




CV. CENTAL- OF -VISION. 

V.PVAMISHING -POINT. 

G.L GROUND - LINE- 
HI- HORIZON - OR. 
HORIZOMTAL-LINL 
5. POSITION • OF 
TH EL • 5PECTATO l=L. 



Kev to the corn 
- er of the. roomy 



X. 




■v ■ 


/ 




I 


i 


i 






1 » 






i t 






t i 






1 T 





















tLE-VATION • 



h (M. F -P Lft N£> .5 HOWtNG 
A. SOTTOM CAR.C ASE. 
liTQP CARCASE. 




Methods of Drawing in Perspective. 



34 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

representation of certain objects such as the table shown, do not succeed in 
producing a satisfactory view. An adaptation of " architects' perspective " is 
generally used, as being more correct and suitable for its purpose ; though a 
rule-of-thumb method, it is most effective in the hands of a good draughtsman. 
See f. 2 & 3, p. 33. Lines above the eye — or higher than 5 ft. — appear to come 
down, and those below to rise up. All these lines would meet at one point known 
as the vanishing point or V.P. The diagram explains how this point is found. 

Fig. 2 shows the elevation and plan of a chest of drawers. Plan P is 
placed anglewise, one side making, say, 30 degs. with a horizontal drawn through 
A. s is suitably placed below the plan, so that the best view is obtained. G.L. is 
ruled parallel to H.L. — 5 ft. in this instance — below. The V.P.'s are found by 
ruling lines from S parallel to the sides of P. Drop perpendicular A B to G.L. 
Draw from B to each V.P. From B cut off B C, the height of the table part on 
B A. From C rule to each v. P., draw lines from L and M, in direction of S to X X. 
From X X drop perpendiculars cutting the vanishing lines. The method of 
finding the legs is shown at L. The chest is found by repeating the necessary 
part of the process, and the positions of the divisions, handles, &c, by marking 
them on the plan and projecting. The important decorative features are intro- 
duced by hand. The drawing is transferred to the paper for finished work, 
and completed either by firm outlining, shading, or colouring, according to the 
capacity of the draughtsman. This problem forms the key by which a great 
number may be drawn. Most tables, cabinets, &c, in their main lines are 
rectangular in form, or deviate very little from it. Dimensions vary ; parts 
project ; some pieces have shaped or curved work ; but the underlying principle 
is there. These difficulties can only be overcome by experience. When dealing 
with work above the eye, f. 3, with key, draw the plan on a separate slip of 
paper, and pin in position until all points X X have been marked on H.L. Then 
remove the slip and proceed as in f. 2. 

Design. — Without some knowledge of the principles of design it is not 
possible to build up a good piece of furniture. Good proportion, good colour, 
and the right use of materials and ornaments are essentials in fine cabinetwork. 
There must also be a knowledge of construction and of the methods of building 
up, with all their possibilities and limitations. Added to these are certain forms 
and sizes which long usage has fixed, such as the height of a writing table, a 
chair, or a sideboard. There are differences to remember when designing a 
wardrobe and a china cabinet ; for in the one it is carcase work with fiat surfaces 
to cover, and in the other it is principally framing where the harmony of many 
lines has to be considered. The treatment of mouldings and their relation to 
position in projecting, receding, or on the fiat, is important, as well as the proper 
placing of ornament. The metal fittings are a feature which must not be under- 
estimated, and in all work there should be a right appreciation of their value 
and position in a design. A careful study of old examples should prove of 
real practical value to designers and cabinetmakers alike, and especially in 
obtaining good proportion. For heavy, solid furniture, such as is needed for 
the hall, library, or dining-room, the best Jacobean period affords some excellent 
models, whilst the mahogany and satinwood work of the eighteenth century 
supplies many useful suggestions for lighter cabinetmaking. 



DRAWING— GEOMETRY— PERSPECTIVE, ETC. 35 

Technical and Workshop Terms. — The names of the principal parts of 
furniture are taken from architecture, as in plinth (the base) ; surbase (table part 
or half base) ; pilaster cornice, and pediment. The names of mouldings are 
similar, as in ogee, ovolo, and dentil (see chapter on " Mouldings "), and a box 
cornice which consists of top or cornice moulding, frieze and neck moulding — or 
architrave — is known as an "entablature." The term "carcase" is applied to 
the body of a job, and " in the white " refers to work in any wood when it is 
unpolished. The parts of a door are known as the " stiles," which are the 
uprights, the " rails," which are horizontal, and the centre uprights are called 
" muntins." " Chamfer," " splay," " bevel," and " cant," are terms of similar 
meaning applied to equal or unequal ("splay") slopes planed off the "arris" or 
corner. When boards or panels have twisted out of the flat they are said to 
have " cast," or are in " winding." Other terms are given with the work to 
which they apply, and a larger list will be found in the Glossary. 



CHAPTER IV. 

JOINTS AND THEIR APPLICATION. 

Synopsis. 

Glued Joints. Plate VI. 

Rubbed — Ploughed and Tongued — Feather Tongued — Matched Joints — Secret Slot 
Screwed Joints — Dowelled Joints — Dowelled Butt Jointing — Dowelled Clamping — 
Bevelled Jointing — Coopering. 

Halved and Bridle Joints. Plate VII. 

Halved Joints — Dovetail Halved — Bridle Joints— Halved Angle Joint — Halved Tee 
Joint — Oblique Halving — Mitred Halving — Dovetail Halving — Stopped Dovetail 
Halving — Angle Bridle Joint — Tee Bridle Joint — Mitred Bridle Joint — Oblique 
Bridle Joint. 

Mortise and Tenon Joints. Plate VIII. 

Stub Mortise and Tenon — Haunched Mortise and Tenon — Through Mortise and Tenon 
— Foxtail Wedging — Barefaced Mortise and Tenon — Long and Short Shoulder 
Joint — Pinning Tongued Shoulder — Double Mortise and Tenon. 

Dovetail Joints. Plate IX. 

Through Dovetailing — Lapped and Stopped Dovetailing — Secret Lapped Dovetailing — 
Mitred Secret — Cistern Dovetails — Keying — Common Dovetails — Common Lapped 
— Common Housed — Shouldered Dovetail Housing — Dovetail and Housed Joints. 

Mitred Joints. Plate X. 

Plain Mitre and Tongued Mitre, Uses of — Veneer Keyed Mitre, Description of — Dovetail 
Keyed Mitre — Rebate and Mitre Joint, for Framing — Bolted Mitreing, Special Uses 
of — Screwed Mitreing — Mason's Mitre Joint, Method of Making — Mitred Stuck 
Moulding — Tongued Mitre Joint — Dowelled Mitre — Braced Mitre. 

Framing Joints. Plate XL 

Butt or Square Joint — Tongued Joint — Barefaced Tongued Joint — Tongue and Ovolo — 
Return Bead and Butt — Rebate and Ovolo — Bead and Rebate — Rebate and Mitre 
— Rebate and Round — Hollow Corner Jointing — Splayed Corner Jointing — Fluted 
Corners — Matched Joint — Beaded Matching — V Matching — Groove and Bead Joint 
— Double Tongued Mitre — Double Rebate and Bead. 

Hingeing and Shutting Joints. Plate XII. 

Butted Hinged Joint — Rebated Astragal Shutting Joint — Rebated Hanging — Rebated 
Dustproof Joints — Centre Hung Door Joint — Rebated Shutting Joint — Rebated 

3 6 



Plate VI. 





SLOT- SCREWED - 
BRACKET- AMD - 
SHELF--- 



PART -VIEW- AnD-SECTlOM- 
OF • A-FRAMED • CYLINDER- 
FALL 



SLOT- SCREWED " 
PILASTER- • • 



TOHGUED- JQ1HT 
OF- DIVIDING -RAIL- 




METHOD -QE- LIPP1MG- 
ACTABLE-TOP--- 



joipiTipjG-m-connoDF^- 

AHD- PILLARS- • • 



Glued Joints. 



[To face page 37- 



bage 37. 



JOINTS AND THEIR APPLICATION 37 

Pilaster Hingeing — Dustproof Joint — Centre Hung Door — Rebated Edge Joint — 
Centre Hinged Bureau Face — Bevel Rebated Joint — Secretaire Face Front. 

Miscellaneous Joints. Plate XIII. 

Pocket Screwing — Handrail Joint — Cleating — Dovetail Cleating — Buttoning — Dovetail 
Keying — Slot Screwing. 

Joints Connecting Movable Parts of Furniture. Plate XIV. 

Plain Hinged Joint — Rule Joint — Knuckle Screen Hinge Joint — Revolving Bracket — 
Hinged Bracket — Finger Joint — Knuckle Joint — Slide Supports. 

This chapter describes and illustrates most of the joints used in cabinetwork, 
and to render the explanations more explicit, diagrams are introduced showing 
the applications of many of the joints, and their places in actual portions 
of completed work. 



GLUED JOINTS. 

Rubbed Joints, f. 1. — These are the simplest kind of joints to make, and 
are rubbed into position when glueing. They are the most suitable for thin 
boards or wood of fairly open texture. They are sometimes cramped if the 
stuff is crooked. An application of this joint is illustrated in f. 10. 

Ploughed and Tongue Jointing, f. 2, is the commonest method of 
jointing. Either one or two cross tongues are used, according to the thickness 
of stuff, and the additional glueing surface afforded by the tongues increases 
the strength of the joint. Feather tongues are not nearly so strong as cross 
tongues, which are cut across the grain. Both tongues prevent the passage of 
light and air should the joint part in the course of time, but feather tongues are 
generally used for dry jointing only. Cross-tongued joints are used in nearly 
all cases where a strong joint is required, such as f. 16. 

Matched Joints, illustrated in f. 3, are generally used for dry jointing, but 
may be used also in glued joints. The difference between a " tongued " and a 
" matched " joint is that the former has a loose tongue inserted in the groove, 
whilst the latter consists of a tongue worked upon the solid and fitted into a 
corresponding groove. An application of this joint to a division rail is shown 
in f. 15. 

Secret Slot Screwed Joints, f. 4, are not much used for glued joints in 
furniture, but they are especially useful for jointing stuff, such as shelves, &c, 
which are required almost immediately after glueing. The secret screwing 
permits of planing and fitting if carefully handled whilst the glue is drying, 
but its most useful application is in the fixing of shelves and brackets, as shown 
in f. 11, pilasters in f. 13, and to almost every kind of fitting required to be firmly 
but secretly fixed, ranging from panelling to the pediment or gallery on a 
sideboard. 

Dowelled Joints, f. 7. — Dowels are cylindrical pieces of wood about 2 in. 
long — beech for preference — inserted into holes which are bored into the jointed 



3 8 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

edges of stuff. They may be used in nearly every instance for strengthening 
joints. Applications are shown in f. 12 & 14. 

Dowelled Butt Jointing, f. 5, is used for lengthening timber, such as large 
cornice mouldings and casings round girders for beam ceilings. This joint is 
also used in work where cross grain prevents tenoning. 

Dowelled Clamping, f. 6, is a variation of dowelled jointing proper. The 
diagram shows long grain jointing to end grain, but it is also used for jointing 
end grains together. The application of both types is shown in f. 14, which is 
a writing table top. 

Bevelled Jointing, f. 8, consists of making joints between pieces of stuff 
to form various angles or corners. It is a variation of "rubbed jointing," but 
cramping is usually required. This is effected by glueing blocks on the pieces 
and pulling together with hand-screws. The applications of this joint — f. 16 
& 17 — are in commode carcases, but the joint is used in practically every 
instance where bevelled or rounded corners are required. Occasionally the 
joints are tongued as shown, or blocked if possible. 

Coopered Joints. — This term is applied to the jointing shown in f. 9, 
used for connecting pieces to form various curves, as, for instance, a cylinder 
table fall — f. 12 — curved panels in framing, and circular or kidney-shaped 
carcases and pedestals. 



Plate Vii. 




Halved and Bridle Joints 



To face page 39- 



JOINTS AND THEIR APPLICATION 39 



HALVED AND BRIDLE JOINTS. 

The diagrams f. 1 to 4 show various halved joints. These are the simplest 
connecting joints in cabinetwork, and are used for a variety of purposes. Where 
two pieces of wood form a X shape, such as the illustration f. 19, the halved 
joint effects the strongest connection, whereas tenoning or dovetailing would 
considerably decrease its bearing strength. Similarly to mortising and tenoning, 
halved jointing is used in conjunction with mitreing in moulded work, especially 
in connecting shaped forms in the underrailing of tables, cabinets, and side- 
boards, dealt with in their respective chapters. The chief uses of these joints, 
however, are in faced-up grounds for doors, and skeleton grounds for fixing, 
being both economical and strong. Dovetail Halved Joints, f. 5 to 8, are 
used to resist an outward strain, such as would occur in the strengthening 
pieces halved into very large frames. Bridle Joints, f. 9 to 12, in their 
various forms may be used in most of the instances enumerated above, where 
a stronger joint having a neater appearance is required. 

Halved Angle Joint, f. 1. — The end of each piece is halved and 
shouldered on opposite sides, fitting into each other. This is the commonest 
form of halving, and most used, on account of its simplicity and strength. 
The outside angles in the frames illustrated in f. 13, 14, & 17, show its use, 
and it is very effective for connecting battens to form skeleton grounds for 
stretching material upon, or for fixing to rough walls where a true and 
secure ground is required for panelling or fitments. 

Halved Tee Joint, f. 2. — This is of similar construction to the above joint, 
and is used for connecting cross pieces in framing to act as stretchers or cross 
rails and muntings, as in f. 14. This illustration refers to a halved-up frame or 
ground, to receive " mitred " and " butted and mitred " facing, which are glued 
down, and allowed to project beyond the inside edge, forming a rebate to receive 
the panel. 

Oblique Halving, f. 3. — A variation of the above for oblique connections, 
such as in f. 15. Similar pieces are occasionally dovetail halved across the 
angles of large frames to act as strengthening braces. 

Mitred Halving, f. 4. — This is the weakest form of halving, due to 
decreased glueing surface, caused by mitre, and indicated by mitre and dotted 
line. Its use is rendered necessary when the face side of frame is moulded, 
and is restricted to very light frames. 

Dovetail Halving, f. 5, 6, & 7. — These are effective joints for connecting 
cross rails in framing, where an outside strain occurs. The application, 
f. 15, refers to a gallows bracket used for supporting fixed shelves, or hinged 
for collapsible wall flaps. 

Stopped Dovetail Halving, f. 8. — This is similar to the three previous 
joints, and is used where the edge of a framing is seen, or an ordinary halved 
joint is unsightly. 

Angle Bridle Joint, f. 9. — A very strong joint, used for similar work to 



4 o MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

previous examples. It is an excellent joint for connecting segments in curved 
rims and frames. The glass frame, f. 18, a, shows its use as a substitute 
for mortising and tenoning. 

Tee Bridle Joint, f. 10. — Used for connections where a stronger joint 
than lapped halving is required. Fig. 17, <?, shows its application to a framed 
groundwork, which is afterwards faced up, with the glass frame pivoted at 
its centre, forming a dressing-table top part. This is a suitable method of 
construction for enamelled work, where the end grain of joints is concealed. 

Mitred Bridle Joint, f. 11. — Suitable for both flat and moulded frames, 
as in f. 18, b, &c. 

Oblique Bridle Joint, f. 12. — This is used for connecting the inside member 
of framing. 



Plate Vlli. 




CABRIOLE 
LE G-AMD' 
RAIL' 



{To face page V- 



IOLE.- 



JOINTS AND THEIR APPLICATION 41 



MORTISE AND TENON JOINTS. 

Stub Mortise and Tenon. — Fig. 1 illustrates the type of mortising and 
tenoning mostly used in doors and framing of furniture. It consists of a rect- 
angular solid projection formed on the ends of rails, fitting into a corresponding 
cavity cut into the stile called a mortise, and secured with glue. When used in 
doors, the tenon is reduced in width as shown in diagram, thus allowing sufficient 
wood to remain on the stile to afford the necessary strength in resisting a 
lengthwise strain. Inside members of framing, as cross rails, muntings, &c, are 
either tenoned in full width or reduced on both sides, according to the size of 
tenon, and arrangement of grooves or rebates to receive the panel. Applica- 
tions shown in f. 11, 13, & 20. 

Haunched Mortise and Tenon, f. 2. — This has similar uses to above, 
but additional strength is obtained by the formation of a haunch, which fits 
into a small adjoining stub mortise, the centre groove to receive the panel being 
usually enlarged to receive the haunch. Applications shown in f. II. 

Through Mortise and Tenon, f. 4. — These are either tenoned, or haunched 
and tenoned as diagram, and pass right through the stuff. The outside of the 
mortise is made rather larger than the inside, thus permitting the entry of 
wedges when glueing ; these are driven home, and form a very strong kind of 
dovetailing. This joint is not largely used in furniture, but is especially useful 
for heavy framing, f. 15, and groundworks as in f. 16. 

Foxtail Wedging, f. 5, consists of an ordinary stub tenon, the mortise 
being cut larger at the bottom. Saw cuts are made down the tenon, and wedges 
inserted just before glueing up ; these when driven home cause the tenon to 
spread, thus forming a fox or dovetail type of joint. 

Barefaced Mortise and Tenon, f. 6. — This is used when the rail is 
thinner than the stile, or when shouldering both sides of the tenon would tend 
to decrease the strength of joint. The tenon can be the full width of rail, or 
haunched on either side to suit particular circumstances. 

Long and Short Shoulder Mortise and Tenon. — Fig. 7 shows one 
shoulder of rail cut back to fill the space caused by rebating the framing. This 
joint has many variations, being used as shown, or in combination with mitred 
mouldings (see f. 17). Its chief use, however, is with grooved or rebated frames 
and doors with the moulding planted in afterwards (see f. 14). 

Pinning, f. 8, is a variation of through mortising and tenoning applied to 
carcase work. The diagram shows a division mortised into a carcase top or 
bottom. It is afterwards wedged diagonally, or across the tenon, when the 
carcase is glued up (see carcase division in f. 19). 

Tongued Shoulder Mortise and Tenon, f. 9. — An ordinary mortise and 
tenoned joint with cross tongues inserted in the shoulders. The tongued joint 
prevents the shoulder springing by affording additional glueing surface. Chiefly 
used in vestibule and lobby doors, and for thick framed groundworks as in f. 16. 

Double Mortise and Tenons, f. 10, is really a stub mortise and tenon joint 



42 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

haunched out to form two tenons, thus increasing the lateral strength of stile. 
It also applies to haunched-through mortising and tenoning. Sideboard ends 
are frequently naunched to form four or more tenons, a method which effects 
a stronger connection than dowelling. 

Twin Mortise and Tenons are used in very thick stuff, and consist of 
two tenons placed side by side, occasionally haunched to form double twin 
tenons. They are used chiefly for lock rails of doors, with a wide haunching 
between, thus allowing the removal of wood to receive the mortise lock, without 
weakening the joint. Further use^ of this joint are dealt with in chapter on 
" Air-tight Work." 



Plate IX. 




Dlbvi 



etail Joints. 



[To face teg* & 



JOINTS AND THEIR APPLICATION 43 



DOVETAIL JOINTS. 

Through Dovetailing, f. i. — This is the strongest form of dovetailing — 
sometimes called common dovetailing — the end grain showing on both sides of 
the angle formed. It is generally used for boxes, cases, pedestals, plinths, &c, 
that are usually faced up afterwards, thus concealing the joint. Exceptional 
instances occur in scientific instrument cases, the dovetails being visible. 
Application f. 12 applies to carcase work, and f. 21 shows a bevelled dovetail 
hopper. For angles and proportions of dovetailing refer to chapter on " Work- 
shop Practice and Construction." 

Lapped or Stopped Dovetailing, f. 2, is so called because a lap is left 
upon the pin piece ; it is used in carcases, drawers, and similar settings, pro- 
portions varying according to the work. The applications f. 13, 15, 16, &c, 
show various forms of ordinary lapped dovetailing applied to carcases of 
furniture, the joint being concealed with top, plinth, or cornice, &c. 

Secret Lapped Dovetailing, f. 3, is somewhat similar to above, two 
laps are formed, and the joint, when glued up, only shows the end grain of 
lap in pin piece. This joint is generally used in boxes and plinth frames, 
which are afterwards rounded off, the radius of quadrant equalling width of lap. 

Mitred Secret Dovetailing, f. 4, is the neatest type of dovetailing ; pieces 
are really dovetailed together, the laps being mitred. This joint is always 
used for bases, plinths, &c, in solid work where an invisible dovetail joint is 
required, and is also the best joint for connecting groundworks before veneering. 
Application in f. 24, a and b. 

Cistern Dovetailing, f. 5. — So called because of its almost exclusive use 
in cisterns and hot-water tank casings. The pins and dovetails are spaced 
equally to ensure proportionate shrinkage, but it is occasionally used for ordinary 
carcase and box work. 

Keying, f. 6. — This is called German dovetailing and also finger-jointing. 
It is shown here as a machine dovetail joint, and is largely used on the 
Continent ; it is, however, quite unsuitable for making by hand. 

A Common Dovetail, shown in f. 8, is used chiefly for dovetailing brackets 
together, and also for frames, which are required to resist a heavy downward 
pull. Several variations of this joint occur, including the four following : — 

Common Lapped Dovetail, f. 7. — For similar uses to the above, also in 
light doors, and connecting curved rails of frames, where mortise and tenon 
joints cannot be effectively employed, f. 17. 

Common Housed Dovetailing, f. 9. — When shouldered and dovetailed 
on one side only, it is called bareface dovetail housing. These types are the 
simplest form of housed dovetailing, and the dovetailing is parallel throughout 
its length. Used in connecting rails of plinths, stretcher frames, &c. Applica- 
tion shown in f. 24 and 20, b. 

Shouldered Dovetail Housing, f. 10. — Like the above joint, this is 



44 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

shouldered on one or both sides, but the dovetail tapers in its length also. 
Used for similar purposes to above, and also for connecting fixed shelves to 
divisions, false bottoms and in carcases (see f. 20, a and c). 

Dovetailed and Housed, f. 1 r. — Another variation of the above joints, and 
used for comparatively small carcase work, where the length of an end does 
not demand a dovetail right through the stuff in order to prevent it sagging 
or bending. Application in f. 23. 



Plate x. 




Mitred Joints. 



[To face page 45- 



JOINTS AND THEIR APPLICATION 45 



MITRED JOINTS. 

Plain Mitre, f. i. — This is the simplest method of connecting end grain 
pieces in plinths, skirtings, &c. Blocks are glued in the internal angle, thus 
strengthening the joint. Although this joint is frequently used for end grain 
mitreing, it is most suitable for mitreing with the grain, a variation of which 
is shown in f. 3, a. For application of plain mitreing, refer to f. 12. 

Tongued Mitre, f. 2. — This is similar to f. 1, with the addition of a 
cross tongue inserted at right angles between the mitre. It is chiefly used 
for end grain mitreing, and forms a very strong joint, if strengthened with 
angle block, when the internal angle is not seen. Application in f. 12. 

Veneer Keyed Mitre, f. 3, consists of a plain mitre, which, when glued 
up, is strengthened by kerfing the angle with a saw, and glueing hardwood 
veneers into the cuts. Chiefly used in cases and boxes, where both sides 
of the angle are seen, and is especially suitable for connecting thin wood, 
which would not permit of mitre dovetailing. Applications shown in f. 14, A. 

Dovetail Keyed Mitre, f. 4. — This has similar uses to former joint. Hard- 
wood slips are prepared, dovetailed in section, and slightly tapered in length, 
glued into corresponding sockets, and levelled off when dry. See f. 14, B. 

Rebate and Mitred Joint, f. 3, a. — Used for connecting varying angles 
in framing, casings, &c, chiefly in painted work. The rebate strengthens the 
joint, and also prevents the mitres slipping when glueing and nailing. 

Bolted Mitreing - , f. 5. — A plain mitre, fixed together with a hand rail 
bolt. Short dowels are inserted to prevent working. It is used for heavy 
work, such as wooden fender curbs and moulded openings of fireplaces. 
Application shown in f. 15. 

Screwed Mitreing, f. 6. — A plain mitre, strengthened by screwing through 
outside of frame. Variations of this joint are the plain mitre, and dowelled 
or pinned. All are used in light moulded frames. 

Mason's Mitre Joint, f. 7. — An ordinary mortise and tenon joint, with 
the moulding worked right through the muntings, and on the rail as shown. 
The corners are then carved to form a mitre on the moulding. It is used 
chiefly in mediseval furniture and fittings. See f. 17. 

Mitred Stuck Moulding. — Fig. 9 is a mitred stuck moulding used for 
connecting mouldings in framing to form various angles. This is the most 
common joint used in moulded framing and doors. 

Tongued Mitre Joint, f. 8. — The diagram shows a sectional view of 
the joint, which is a variation of plain mitreing, and is nearly always used 
for end grain jointing. The tongue should be about one-third thickness 
of stuff, and may run right through the mitre or stop as shown. It is an 
especially useful joint for mitreing mouldings round groundwork, connecting 
double bolection mouldings, as in f. 18, quartering stuff for tops and panels, 
mitreing stuff round tops which project slightly above the surface to receive 



46 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

leather linings, and also for connecting segments in curved work; see f. 13, or 
with dowels, as shown in f. 16. 

Dowelled Mitre, f. 10. — This has similar uses to the above, where both 
sides of the angle are seen, and secret fixing required. 

Braced Mitre, f. 11. — This is used chiefly for strengthening plain mitres 
in framings, such as moulded panel openings which are occasionally separated 
from the main framework. The black portion also shows a slip dovetailed 
in section, known as a dovetail key, used to brace the backs of frames at 
the joint. 



Plate Xl, 




Framing Joints. 



[To face pag** 1 ' 



JOINTS AND THEIR APPLICATION 47 



FRAMING JOINTS. 

A Butt or Square Joint, f. 1, is usually secured by glueing and nailing. 
This joint when used as an external angle in framing would be secret-screwed 
or screw-nailed if for painted work. 

A Tongued Joint, f. 2, is chiefly used for connecting external and internal 
angles of framing, building up pedestals and pilasters. Application shown in 
f. 22, a. 

The Barefaced Tongued Joint, f. 3, is shouldered on one side only, and 
is used for internal and external angles, with a bead worked upon the tongued 
piece to hide the joint. It is also used for external angles, omitting the bead 
(see f. 21). , 

Tongue and Ovolo, f. 4. — A variation of above joint, and used for external 
angles, the ovolo forming an alternative method of finishing corner (see f. 22, b). 

The Return Bead and Butt, f. 5, consists of a plain butt joint with a "return" 
or " staff bead " worked upon the through piece. Application shown in f. 22, c. 

Rebate and Ovolo, f. 6. — A variation of the butt joint, suitable for painted 
work, and secured by nailing. 

Bead and Rebate, f. 7. — A rebated joint, with a bead to hide the joint. 
Secured by nailing or secret screwing. Also used for connecting framed and 
munted backs to carcase ends (see f. 26, b, when it is screwed in position). 

Rebate and Mitre, f. 8. — A very useful joint in connecting framing at any 
angle. The rebate acts as a guide or stop when fixing, which is generally 
nailed or screwed, and pelleted in painted work. Application shown in f. 22, d. 

Rebate and Round, f. 9. — An ordinary rebated joint, glued together, with 
the corner rounded off. Chiefly used in nursery fittings. • 

Hollow Corner Jointing, f. 10, shows a method of forming hollow angles or 
corners. Groove and tongue joints are used, and glued into position when fixing. 

Splayed Corner Jointing. — Fig. 1 1 is an example of a splayed pilaster, 
with the method adopted in joining the ends or frames. The application in 
f. 24 refers to a wardrobe with splayed pilaster corners. 

Fluted Corners, f. 12. — The fluted piece is shaped as shown in diagram, 
in order to facilitate fixing, by clearing any projections or irregularities in the 
corner of a wall. A similar joint is largely used for external angles in Chippen- 
dale hollow cornered pedestal tables, these corners being fluted, carved, or reeded. 

Matched Joint, f. 1 3. — So called, because the tongue is worked upon the 
solid, differing from a tongued joint, when a loose tongue is inserted. It is 
used for connecting boards to form matched backs, partitions, munted backs, 
&c. (see f. 25, a). 

Beaded Matching, f. 14. — The former joint elaborated by the addition of 
a bead on the tongued piece, nearly always used dry for similar purposes as 
above (see f. 25, b). 

V-Matching, f. 15. — A variation of the above joint. The edges of each 
piece are chamfered, thus forming a V joint (see also f. 25, c). 



48 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

Barefaced Tongue Groove and Bead Joint, f. 16. — This is used chiefly in 
munted backs, the panel being thinner than the munting (see f. 26, a). In the 
framing at f. 23, A, it will be noticed that the panel is beaded lengthways 
only in the "bead and butt." The "bead and flush" framing has the head 
moulding returned at both ends. This is effected by scratching the moulding 
across the grain, or by the cleaner and more usual method of rebating the stuff 
away and mitreing a piece of moulding in the rebate thus formed between the 
mitres (see f. 23, b). 

Double Tongued Mitre Joint, f. 17. — A variation of the rebate and mitre 
joint, used for external angles. It is very strong, and made secure by nailing. 

Double Rebate and Bead, f. 18 — Of similar uses to the above, and 
secured by nailing. 



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HlXGEING AND SHUTTING JOINTS. 



[To face page W- 



JOINTS AND THEIR APPLICATION 49 



HINGEING AND SHUTTING JOINTS. 

The diagrams on the opposite page illustrate in section the most important 
methods of arranging hinged parts of furniture. The exact position of pin 
centre, either of butt or pivoted centre hinge, is indicated by a small black 
circle, but where centre hinges are used, they will be noted in the following 
text. The methods of fixing the various hinges is described in Chapter XII. 

Fig. 1, a, shows a Butted Hinged Joint, the commonest method of hang- 
ing doors. The entire hinge is sunk flush into the hanging stile, b, Rebated 
Astragal Shutting Joint. The astragal is glued to the stile, and rebated to 
form a projection, which conceals any shrinkage in the adjoining stile. Brass 
astragal mouldings are frequently used with this joint, with a flange rebated 
and screwed into the stile, c, Rebated Hinge Joint, of similar uses to the 
butted hinged joint, but is more dustproof. Fig. 2, a, Rebated Dustproof 
Joint, is similar to the preceding joint, with a dust bead glued into the carcase 
end, and fitting into a corresponding groove in door stile. These beads are 
sometimes covered with felt or rubber, and form an absolutely dust and airproof 
connection, b, Similar to astragal shutting joint, f. 1, but rebated into the 
meeting stile, c, A simple dustproof joint, but very effective. Fig. 3, a, shows 
the position of stiles when the doors are hung over the carcase, b, A rebated 
astragal joint, stronger than previous types of wood astragals, but has the dis- 
advantage of showing a space if either of the stiles shrink. It is most suitable 
for flush or laminated doors, c, A dustproof joint with bead worked upon the 
end. Beads are also inserted in carcase top and bottom. Fig. 4, a, a Centre 
Hung Door. Centre hingeing is used for very heavy work, such as glazed 
wardrobe doors. It is much stronger than butt hingeing, is neater in appear- 
ance, and the centre pivots are invisible, b shows the shutting stile of the door 
against a stop bead screwed to the end. Rebated Shutting Joint, c. Rebated 
Pilaster Hingeing, d, suitable for Tallboy chests, cabinets, &c, which have 
drawers enclosed by doors. The projection portion enables the drawers to pull 
out when the door is open, without the addition of false ends to permit the 
drawers clearing the edge of door. Dustproof Joint, f. 5, a, suitable for single 
door carcases, rendering the locking stile dustproof ; and b, detail for the hinge- 
ing stile. Fig. 6, a and b, are details for a single door fitted between the carcase 
ends. Centre Hung Door, f. 7, shows a hollowed pilaster and stop bead. 
The false end is inserted to allow trays or drawers to pull out beyond the 
edge of door, which only swings in an angle of 90 deg. Fig. 8 shows an 
alternative arrangement for a similar purpose, the door in this case passing 
through an angle of about 130 deg. Rebated Edge Joint, f. 8, is used in 
drawers of the Queen Anne and William and Mary periods, having a neat 
appearance, and concealing any shrinkage which might occur in the drawer. 
Fig. 10 shows its application to a cabinet door. The diagram, f. 12, indicates 
a Centre Hinged Bureau Fall, with stop rebates. Quadrants or stays are 
fixed to the ends for support when in a horizontal position. Bevel Rebated 
4 



5 o MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

Joint, f. 13, is largely used for secretaire flaps and falls, which are also supported 
with quadrant stays. Fig. 9 is another application of this joint to a sliding 
and falling leaf in a liqueur cabinet. When brought to a horizontal position 
it is pushed home between the divisions. Fig. 14 shows this joint applied 
to a secretaire drop front drawer in a bookcase bottom part. The drawer 
is partly withdrawn before the front is released. Secretaire Fall Joint, f. 15, 
has similar uses to f. 13. 



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Miscellaneous Joints. 



[To face page $*• 



JOINTS AND THEIR APPLICATION 51 



MISCELLANEOUS JOINTS. 

Pocket Screwing. — Figs. 1 and 2 show, in elevation and section, two 
methods of pocket screwing. The first consists of boring holes obliquely from 
the top edge of a rail or rim, then gauging a pocket as shown. The second 
example b has a A--in. hole bored in the rim to admit a screwdriver, and then a 
smaller hole is bored to take a screw, and a button glued into the hole under 
rim when finishing. Both these methods are largely used for fixing table tops 
(see f. 9), and for work of a similar character. 

The Handrail or Dowel Screw Joint, f. 3, is not used to any great extent 
in furniture, but is occasionally useful for connecting segments of curved work, 
chair rails, serpentine curves, and butt joints. Its chief recommendation is its 
simplicity, and the fact that it is a secret fixing. Fig. 12 gives an example of its 
use in connecting the curved segments of a semi-head frame, but a dowelled 
joint in this case would be equally effective. 

Cleating, f. 4, consists of screwing cleats or clamps across boards to hold 
them quite straight. It will be noticed that the screw holes are slotted. This 
is to allow the stuff to move if either contraction or expansion occurs. 

Dovetail Cleating, f. 5, is a variation of the above, the cleat being dove- 
tailed both in section and lengthwise. This joint acts similarly to f. 4, for which 
it is substituted when the thickness of stuff permits of grooving. 

Buttoning, f. 6. — A method of fixing the wide tops of counters, bank desks, 
and tables (see also f. 9). A rectangular block of wood is rebated to fit a 
corresponding groove on inside of rail, then screwed securely to top, allowing a 
small space to remain between the butt of the button and the rail, this permitting 
contraction and expansion. Buttoning is undoubtedly the best kind of fixing 
for almost every kind of top ; but laminated and small work, where shrinkage 
is scarcely perceptible, does not demand this provision. The use of buttons 
applied to T iron cleating is shown in f. 11, and f. 10 applies to wooden cleats 
buttoned down. Georgian panelling frequently contains panels 8 to 12 ft. wide. 
The shrinkage is, of course, proportionately large, and if the panels were not 
treated in this way, buckling would ensue if there were any dampness. 

Dovetail Keying, f. 8. — Hardwood keys about \ in. thick, double dovetailed 
as shown, are inlaid into wide surfaces to increase the strength of joint ; their 
use is almost restricted to repair work, such as shakes or splits which are first 
glued and then keyed. The diagram f. 13 illustrates their use in joints placed 
at intervals of about 1 5 in. 

Slot Screwing, f. 7, indicates the method of forming this joint, which is 
always used to secure a drawer bottom at the back, ensuring a close joint inside, 
and yet allowing for shrinkage to occur in the bottom. The front edge is glued 
into groove, so that any shrinkage which takes place is towards the front. Its 
application is shown in f. 11 for fixing T iron cleats, and in f. 14 the munted 
bottom of a drawer. 



52 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



JOINTS CONNECTING MOVABLE PARTS OF FURNITURE. 

Plain Hinged Joint. — Fig. i is an ordinary butt or back flap hinged joint 
used for connecting the drop leaves of tables. Its use is confined to inferior 
work, but it could be applied to any of the tables shown in f. 12, 13, 14, &c. 
When the leaf is raised the top is quite flush, but it has an unsightly appear- 
ance when lowered, a small space showing at the joint, as well as the knuckles 
of the hinges. 

The Rule Joint, f. 2, consists of an ovolo worked upon the fixed edge of a 
top, with a corresponding hollow on the leaf. Special rule joint hinges or back 
flaps are used to connect them. When setting out the joint, the distance from 
the flat side of hinge to centre of pin or knuckle must be gauged from under 
side of top, see f. 3. The stop square, shown by continuation of dotted line, is 
placed directly above the centre, and the centre of pin is also the point for 
striking moulded section. The hinges are sunk flush underneath, and as the 
leaf swings up or down, the moulded edges fit close and conceal the housing 
of hinges. This is used for connecting hinged leaves to table tops. See 
examples opposite, and patent rule joint hinge in Chapter XII. 

Knuckle Screen Hinge Joint, f. 4. — The meeting joints of the wings 
are shaped to section as seen in the diagram, with a moulded piece fitting 
between them. Hinges are fixed at top and bottom as shown, with a centre 
hinge for long joints. This connection is used in first-class screen work, and 
is quite draught-proof. Application shown in f. 14. 

Revolving Bracket, f. 5. — This consists of a piece of wood about i£ in. 
wide fitting into the end, and pinned as shown. It can only be used in 
conjunction with a false top, such as in f. 18, the dotted line indicating a false 
top framing, which receives one end of the iron pin. It is used chiefly in 
well top work and Pembroke tables. 

Hinged Bracket, f. 6. — This is an ordinary shaped bracket hinged to the 
ends of carcases and tables to support small leaves. When the leaf is lowered 
the bracket is invisible. Used as in application f. 16. 

Finger Joint, f . 7 & 9. — The elevation and plan of a movable interlocking 
joint is shown swinging in an angle of 90 deg. The bracket is hinged to a 
piece fixed to the rail, an iron pin acting as centre. It is used chiefly for 
brackets, as shown in f. 15, and for fly rails, as f. 12, 13, & 19. 

Knuckle Joint, f. 8 & 11. — This is another method of interlocking movable 
rails, shown in elevation and plan, neater in appearance than the former joint, 
and used for similar purposes. This joint, if made as diagrams, opens at right 
angles. Fig. 1 1 shows a method of making to swing in an angle of 180 deg., 
the mitre lines acting as stops in both cases. Both finger and knuckle joints 
are used for brackets, and for connecting legs on fly rails, which give more 
stability to a table than brackets. Application shown in f. 13, 15, &c. 



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Joints connecting Movable Parts of Furniture. 



[To face page 52. 



JOINTS AND THEIR APPLICATION 53 

Slide _ Supports.— Fig. 17 shows another method of supporting leaves 
Slides are inserted under the top, dovetailed or grooved in section, and corre- 
sponding bearers are fixed to the framing and top. The diagram shows a pair 
of slides acting parallel to each other, but they may also be arranged to butt 
at the centre, according to available space and required projection of slide 
when extended. 



CHAPTER V. 
WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION. 
General Workshop Practice. 

Procedure in Hand and Machine Shops— Marking out— Sharpening Saws- 
Sawing — Ripping — Cross-cutting — Tenoning — Shouldering — Planing — Use of 
Winding Strips — Squaring Edges — Jointing Joints in Winding — Jointing Thin 
Boards — Glueing Rubbed Joints — Cramping up— Dowelled Joints — Ploughing — 
Tongueing — Rebating — Mortising and Tenoning — Proportions for Tenons — 
Setting Mortise Gauge— Clearing out Mortises— Necessity for Upright Mortising — 
Dowelling a Butt Joint — Dowelling Rails— Dovetailing — Setting out Angle for 
Dovetailing — Correct and Incorrect Angle — Dovetail Template — Spacing — Mitre- 
ing — Mitreing Mouldings — Panel Mouldings — Mitreing Breaks — Stuck Mouldings 
—Use of Templates — Scribing Mouldings — Application of Scribing — Sharpening 
Gouges — Use of Slip Stones — Working Mouldings — Stuck-planed and Scratched 
Mouldings — Setting out for Working — Use of Rubbers — Toothing — Sharpening and 
Using — Glass-papering — Grades and Sizes — Cleaning off Doors and Framing- 
Nailing — Bradding — Pinning — Descriptions and Uses of ditto— Preparing 
Surfaces — Stopping — Wood Inlays — Composition — Removing Stains — Raising 
Bruises. 

Introduction. 

This chapter consists of brief explanatory descriptions of methods in general 
use for making the various joints, and in the manipulation of tools and material. 
When the work is of such a character as to need special appliances and 
processes, such as veneering and marquetry, they are dealt with in a separate 
chapter. The methods illustrated and described are those generally used 
in good class work, but it must be pointed out that they vary somewhat 
according to the training, shop, and individual experience of the worker. At 
the same time they are essential beginnings in the production of sound, clean 
fitted, and substantial furniture. The chapter is in sections, as follows : — 
(a) General Workshop Practice, (b) Carcase Construction, (V) Door Making, 
(d) Drawer Work, (e) Curved Work. 

Remarks on Procedure in Hand and Machine Shops. — Commencing 
with the design of a piece of furniture, the foreman or draughtsman " sets out," 
i.e., makes a drawing of the job, either on stiff paper, or upon a i-in. pine board, 
called a " rod." This " setting out," together with a " cutting list," viz., a list 

54 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



55 



of material required in making the job — all sizes full to allow for working and 
fitting — are handed to the " marker out," who selects and cuts out the " stuff," 
which is then given to the cabinetmaker to proceed with the work. Each piece 
is marked to correspond with the numbers on the cutting list, and the section of 
each piece is numbered upon the drawing. In machine shops the cutting list 
is given to a "marker out," who chalks out all the stuff upon the boards and 
planks, numbering each piece to correspond with list. The stuff is then taken 
in hand by the machine foreman, who superintends the cutting out and planing 
up. A "setter out" is employed who 
marks the prepared material to length, 
and also gauges mortises, tenons, &c, 
according to the machine capacity of 
the shop; and when the machining is 




i. Marking out with Thumb and Rule. 



completed, the material, drawing, and 
cutting list are placed in the cabinet- 
maker's hands to complete the job. 

Marking Out. — The preliminary 
chalking or marking out of material 
needs very careful attention, regarding 
economical arrangement, suitability as 

to soundness, uniformity in colour between the pieces of stuff, and the direction 
of grain and figure. When large boards are to be marked, they should first be 
roughed over with a smoother or " Bismarck " plane, carefully faced, and the 
cutting lines produced in the following manner : — First, with a piece of whitened 
whipcord or twine, held on the mark at each end, andjquite taut, and then gripped 
about the centre with finger and thumb, raised I or 2 in. and then released. 
This gives a perfectly straight and clear white line. Second, if the boards have 
a straight sawn edge, a rule held between the thumb and fingers of left hand 
may be used as a gauge, and lines drawn with a pencil parallel to the edge, 

see f. 1. The 
third method is to 
mark points upon 
the stuff, and con- 
nect them with 
lines drawn with a 
straightedge and 
pencil. 

Allowances 
for Working and 
Fitting. — The allowance for working when marking out for machine cutting 
and planing should be J in. full extra width. This is allowed for the saw cut, 
and an additional ^ in. for planing and fitting ; thus a door stile set out 2 in. 
wide, would be marked out 2\ in. All stuff should be marked, as rail, cross 
rail, drawer front, &c, or numbered to correspond with the cutting list and 
drawing. When marking shapes and brackets, cabriole and other curved legs, 
they should be marked out from a template, as shown in f. 2, called in workshop 
lancaiacfe " one in the other." 




2. Marking out Shapes. 



56 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



Sharpening and Setting - Saws. — A full description of saws is given in 
the chapter on " Tools." Although the spacing and pitch of the teeth vary in 
different types, sharpening and setting is exactly similar. The following 
description of a hand-saw, for instance, will therefore be sufficient for all purposes. 
The blade should be fixed in a saw filer's vice, i.e., one with extra long jaws, 
the teeth just projecting above the edge. A three-cornered saw file is then 
inserted between two teeth, and pressed lightly but firmly forward once or 
twice, taking care not to alter the pitch or angle of the teeth. The spaces are 
filed alternately from one side, and then the saw is reversed, and the re- 
maining spaces also filed. To obtain the set, alternate teeth are bent 
outwards by tapping with the hammer and punch, or with a " saw set." 
The amount of set varies according to the type of saw. Hand and panel 
saws which diminish in section towards the back, require less set than a 
blade of equal thickness throughout. 





I. Ripping Stuff on Bench. 



2. Ripping Stuff on Stool. 



Sawing. — The tool used by cabinetmakers for cutting stuff length- 
wise is usually a hand-saw, the joiner's rip-saw only being needed for 
exceptionally thick stuff, or where it is more convenient to use stools than 
a bench. The method generally employed is to fix the stuff firmly to the 
bench with a hand-screw or holdfast, f. I. The cut is then commenced by 
making a short kerf with the saw held handle downwards, about three or 
four strokes being necessary, then the position of the saw is reversed, 
drawn lightly upwards for a short distance, and then pressed downwards 
in an almost upright direction ; the length of stroke is increased as the 
blade enters the wood, until two-thirds of its length is employed. Care 
must be taken not to exert much pressure on the downward stroke, 
as the saw is liable to buckle and jar the hands on to the teeth. The 
saw must be occasionally looked at from behind, to judge whether the cut 
is square and free from winding. Should the sawn edges press together 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



57 




and bind the saw blade, a chisel or wedge must be inserted. The saw 

must be properly sharpened and set, or it will have a tendency to draw 

away from the line. Ripping stuff on stool 

is illustrated in f. 2, p. 56. 

Cross-Cutting.— The stuff is placed 

upon stools or bench, and held firmly with 

knee or holdfast respectively. Commence 

a cut by placing the heel of the saw close 

to the edge, then draw the saw upwards for 

a short distance, and push down very lightly, 

care being taken not to withdraw the saw 

when it is brought into cutting position 

1. Commencing a Tenon Cut. 



again ; it should be held at an 
angle of about 45 deg. to surface 
of board. Sometimes when cross- 
cutting, the board will commence 
to split close to the cut with a loud 
report ; this is generally due to 
forced seasoning of the wood, but 
sometimes indicates branch stuff, 
which has considerably more 
" spring " or " life " than boards 
from the trunk of a tree. To pre- 
vent further splitting, well cramp 
the board near the cut, and then 




2. Finishing a Tenon. 




3. Use of Shoulder Board. 



shear or cut the fibres altogether, by holding 
the saw horizontally. 

Cutting Tenons. — The tenon saw is 
used for general tenoning, but where large 
tenons have to be made, a hand-saw is pre- 
ferred. The pieces must be held firmly in 
the bench vice, and the cut commenced on the 
end grain ; then saw diagonally towards the 
shoulder line (see f. 1 above), afterwards re- 
versing stuff, and cutting downwards square 
with the face edge (see f. 2). By this method the 
first saw cut acts as a guide, and ensures greater 
accuracy than when cut square right down. Very 
small tenons are cut with a dovetail saw. 

Shoulder Cutting. — After the tenon cuts are 
made, the beginner experiences some difficulty in 
cutting the shoulders. To reduce this difficulty 
with shoulder line, he should place the piece on 
the shoulder board (see f. 3), and carefully chisel a V shaped cut against the 
line, as shown in f. 4. The saw may then be placed in the channel formed, 




4. Commencing a Shoulder Cut. 



53 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



and drawn backward, afterwards pushing forward with a light stroke. The 
thumb placed against the blade assists to keep the saw upright (see f. i below) ; 
the handle should be gripped firmly but not tightly, or the hand will shake, thus 
preventing a clean cut. In wide shoulders, place a straightedge against the 




i. Cutting a Shoulder. 



2. Sharpening on Oilstone, 



line, and use it as a guide when making the cut. This method should not be 
practised long, or efficient mastery of the tool will not be obtained. Very 
wide tenons and shoulders are worked with rebate and shoulder plane only, 
the straightedge acting as a guide for rebate plane. 

Planing may be roughly divided into four 

sections. First, Roughing up stuff with a 

" Bismarck " before marking out. Second, Jack 

planing, used after roughing to reduce stuff in 

width or thickness with a greater degree of 

accuracy before trying up. Third, Try planing, 

for finishing surfaces and edges perfectly straight 

and true, and general fitting and jointing. 

Fourth, Smooth planing, before finishing with 

scraper and glass-paper. The scientific principles of cutting action, slope of 

handles, and pitch of irons vary according to the particular uses of the plane, 

but the general methods of grinding and sharpening are common to all. 

To Sharp and Set Plane Irons. — The jack or trying plane is firmly 




TO- SURC*Ct- 

or-oiLSTorie-' 
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TO-TAMGCnT. 
OF^GRrtDSTOne- 



3. Angles for Grinding. 










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4. Cutting Edge Shapes. 



grasped with the fingers on the sole of the plane, the thumb pressing against 
wedge in the throat, then struck sharply with the hammer upon the button. This 
loosens the wedge, and the iron can be easily removed, the thumb preventing 
it slipping through the mouth. Smoothing planes should be struck upon the 
heel against the top of bench. The cap iron is unloosened by holding top end 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



59 



of irons in left hand, and resting it upon the forepart of bench, then turning 
the screw with a wide screwdriver. Apply a few drops of oil to the oilstone, and 
grasp the iron, bevel downwards, with the right hand, assisting with the left hand, 
f. 2 opposite. Then apply the iron to the stone, and rub to and fro nearly the 
whole length. The iron is kept as far as possible moving in a parallel direction, 
at an angle of about 33 deg. to oilstone surface ; an undulating motion, which 
causes a round bevel, and necessitates frequent 
grinding, is thus avoided. Fig. 3 illustrates the 
angles at which the iron is held when grinding 
and sharpening; the grindstone should revolve 
in a direction away from the operator when 
grinding irons or chisels. A slight burr is 
caused by the rubbing of iron upon oilstone, 

and the iron should be turned over, held quite flat upon the stone, and rubbed 
slightly to remove the "true" or wire edge. Then wipe with shavings or cotton 
waste, and whet the iron by drawing it across the palm of hand, each side 
alternately, or upon a buff strop. To test for a keen edge lightly slide the 
ball of the thumb along, and it will be found to grip smoothly. 

Convexity of Cutting Edge. — Jack plane irons are sharpened slightly con- 
vex. Bismarck and roughing planes more convex. Trying, smoothing, compass, 




1. A Pair of Winding Strips. 




2. Testing a Board with Winding Strips. 



and panel planes almost perfectly straight, with the corners rubbed off (see f. 4). 
Bullnose, shoulder, rebate, fillister, and plough irons are sharpened quite straight 
care being taken to produce sharp, square corners, which ensure easy working. 

Set of Irons. — The amount of iron projecting beyond the cap iron is said 
to be coarse or fine, according to the distance between, which varies according 
to the texture of the wood. 



6o 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




i. A Face Mark. 




2. Use of a Cramp Rack Support. 



To Set the Iron. — The screw should be placed in the hole and drawn along 
the slot, tightened with thumb and finger, and adjusted close to cutting edge 

(the distance varying from ^ to T V in., thus reduc- 
ing the splitting action of the iron upon the wood, 
the greater distance for soft woods), and finally 
the screw tightened. 

Setting the Plane. — Place the heel of plane 

on forepart of bench, the left hand holding the 

plane in a sloping direction, insert plane iron, 

pressing it with thumb against throat, adjust for 

set or projection of iron beyond sole, and 

judge by glancing along the sole, then place 

wedge in position, and tap home with a 

hammer ; the wedge must not be driven too 

tightly or it will force the plane hollow. 

Should the rim project too much, tap the 

button and then wedge again. 

Planing Up. — To plane true and out of 
winding, called " trueing up," proceed as 
follows : — First remove rough surface with 
jack plane and " traverse " {i.e., plane across 
the board, if it exceeds 15 in.), then plane 
lengthwise, testing it with edge of plane across the board ; 
if either hollow or round, light will be visible at the centre or 
edges accordingly, indicating the high parts. The trying 
plane is then worked in the direction of grain, removing 
the superfluous wood, until a flat surface is produced, 
which is tested with winding strips, f. 1, p. 59. Winding 
strips are pieces of hard wood planed quite parallel, with 
white sights let into one piece. Place one at each end of 
the board ; then, standing about a foot away from the 
near piece, lower the head until the eye is level with the 
edge of strip, f. 2, p. 59, and observe whether both edges 
lie in the same plane ; if this is the case the lines 
are parallel. When the stuff is twisted, opposite 
corners of the strips appear high, indicating that 
more planing is required diagonally to produce a 
flat true surface. After planing diagonally, finish 
with strokes right through the board, which, if quite 
true, will allow the iron to bite or grip throughout 
the whole length. A mark is then applied, f. 1 
above, called a face mark, which suffices to show 
the face side, and also indicates the " trued " or " shot " edge. 

Squaring the Edge. — Shooting and squaring the edge usually follows 
the " facing up," a straightedge square with face side being produced. The 
stuff is fixed in bench vice, supported with a rack, f. 2, a few shavings are 
removed with jack plane, and the trying plane is placed on the edge, the left hand 




Marking Stuff for 
Jointing. 




4. Placing the Stuff. 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



61 



grasping fore front and fingers on sole, acting as a guide which prevents the plane 
slipping off the edge. Slightly raise the heel of plane, and draw backwards 





I. Testing a Joint with Straightedge. 



2. Shooting Joints on Thin Stuff. 




until the cutting iron is behind the end, then press forward the whole length 
of joint. If the edge is round, commence planing at the centre ; if hollow, 
remove stuff from each end, and then in 
both cases take off fine shavings the whole 
length. Edges above 4 ft. in length are 
tested for accuracy with a long straight- 
edge, and also with try square on the face 
side. 

Jointing". — When jointing, the pieces 
are arranged on the bench in order, bearing 
in mind position of heart side, direction of 
figure and grain, and uniformity in colour 
between them. Fig. 3 opposite illustrates 
the correct arrangement of stuff with heart 
grain in same direction, and also the 
method of marking cross lines below 
numbers, to show position when glueing up. 
Fig. 4 opposite indicates position of heart 
grain in jointing. Proceed to shoot face 
edge of piece marked 1, then insert the second piece in vice, 
and shoot the edge, place both edges together, and test 
across face sides at both ends, with a straightedge. Any 
irregularities in the joint will be at once apparent, and may 
be rectified by taking fine shavings from the high side of 
edge. Cramped joints should be shot slightly hollow. 

Winding Joints. — Sometimes the jointing stuff is in 
winding, and when this is the case, test with a straight- 
edge about the centre of boards only (f. 1 above), planing 
joints until both faces are in line. It will be observed that 
one end of the board is hollow, and the other end round. 
When glueing up, hand-screw a cleat at each end, then cramp in centre first, and 
then at each end, when the joint should pull up quite flat. 

Jointing Thin Boards. — After marking as described previously, place one 
piece on shooting board, f. 2, number upwards. Shoot the edge with the plane 



Position for Glueing. 




Position when 
Drying. 



62 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




I. Cramping up on Bench. 





2. Jointing up Thin Stuff. 




on its side. The second piece is then shot number downwards. This is called 
" under and over." The bevel formed on each piece, due to unequal projection 

of plane iron, and inaccurate shooting 
board, thus counteract each other. 

Glueing Rubbed Joints. — To glue 
up rubbed joints, secure one piece firmly 
in bench vice, and lay the other edge 
against it, forming a blunt V (see f. 3, 
p. 61). The glue should be thoroughly 
heated, and of such consistency as will 
prevent it breaking quickly into bead- 
like drops as it falls from the brush. 
Well brush the glue over joints, and 
bring the stuff into position again. 
Grasp the top piece at each end, and 
rub to and fro steadily. The strokes 
will gradually shorten as the air and 
glue are expelled, and finally cease as soon 
as the lines coincide, as when first marked. 
They can be placed against bearers until 
dry (see f. 4, p. 61, which illustrates correct 
and incorrect position of boards against 
bearers when drying), the weight of boards 
in the second diagram partially opening and 
breaking the joint. 

Cramping Joints. — Place two 
bearers across the bench, well 
glue joints, and fold over in posi- 
tion ; a cramp is then applied at 
centre, f. 1 above. If the joint is 
shot slightly hollow, one cramp is 
sufficient. Tap the joint with a hammer until 
both pieces are quite flush or level. Thin stuff 
is planed slightly hollow, and cramped between 
iron stops of bench, with a weight on them to 
prevent springing, or, if a large number of joints 
require glueing, improvised cramps as in f. 2, 
small pins preventing buckling. 

Dowelled Joints. — Fix both pieces as in 

f. 3, square lines across at intervals of about 

9 in., then gauge lines in centre of edges, the 

intersections being pierced with a marking awl, 

and then bored with a dowel bit. The stop 

gauge fixed to dowel bit, f. 4, determines the 

depth of dowel hole, which should be about 1 in. Should the dowel fit tightly, 

reduce by driving through a dowel plate, or tooth with plane. The dowels are 

glued into one piece, and cut off to length, filling the holes as shown in f. 5. 



Method of Marking for Dowels. 




4. Stop Gauge on Dowel Bit. 




5. Correct and Incorrect Length 
of Dowels. 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



63 



Badly fitting dowels cause indentations to 
appear on the wood, by the contraction of 
air and glue. They are especially notice- 
able when the material is polished. 

Ploughing a Tongued Joint. — The 
main parts of a plough are the " skate," 
" fence," and stop. Set the plough with 
the iron projecting about .^ in. below the 
edge of skate, and turn the thumb-screw to 
regulate depth of groove, tightening the 
side set screws to prevent it working loose. 
The wedges are then slackened, and the 
stem tapped at either end until the dis- 
tance required between fence and cutter is 

obtained, then tighten wedges and again test carefully. The plough is held as 
in f. 1 above, with wood fixed as shown, the driving power is obtained with the 




1. Method of Holding a Plough. 




^TOWWr^ ftfft 



l|1|1 ! , ili!l! 



2. Cross Grained Tongue. 




3. Board for Planing Tongues. 



4. Feather Tongue. 



right hand, steadying the tool with the left. Ploughing commences at the front, 
and working backwards, and then right through to finish. The plough must be 
held quite steady during 



E 



E 



5. Commencing a Rebate. 6. Ploughing a Large Rebate. 



this operation, or a rolling 
motion will occur, and the 
groove be irregular. 

Tongued Joints. — 
Cross tongues, f. 2, are 
made by shooting the end 
of a thin board of hardwood, then gauging 
off pieces about § in. wide, which are re- 
duced to thickness in the tongueing board, 
f. 3. Feather tongues, f. 4, are cut lengthway 
of the grain, and are seldom used in cabinet 
work. Proceed to shoot joint as pre- 
viously explained for rubbed joints. Plough 
the grooves, as described from face side. 

Glue cross tongues into one piece, finish glueing, and cramp together. All 
joints should be warmed before glueing, ensuring close joints, and more rapid 
drying. Badly fitted tongues have a similar effect to bad dowelling, particularly 
in thin stuff, and are also unsightly on the end view. 




7. Stiles Hand-screwed together before 
Marking Mortises. 



6 4 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




Rebating. — Rebates are formed by gauging lines upon face side and edge of 
stuff, and chamfering away the corner, f. 5, p. 63, then a shoulder is cut with chisel, 

which enables the rebate plane to obtain a start, 
finally rebating to the dotted lines. Very large rebates 
are ploughed, f. 6, and finished with rebate plane. 
A side fillister is used when a number of similar re- 
bates require working. This is set with screws and 
fence upon the side and bottom, a spur attachment 
on the side facilitating cross-grain cutting. This spur 
must project slightly beyond the corner of the iron, or a 
1. Setting a Mortise Gauge. ragged edge 

will result. 
Mortising and Tenoning Propor- 
tions. — Stub and through mortises and 
tenons are about one-third the thickness 
of stuff, or rather more than under if the 
mortise chisel is not exactly one-third 
the thickness of wood. The stiles should 
be hand - screwed together, f. 7, and 
mortise lines squared across the edges 
in pencil. Shoulder lines on rails are 
marked with striking knife or chisel, re- 
turning the lines all round the rails. 
Through mortise lines are returned on 
the face side and back edge. 

Setting the Gauge. — The mortise 
chisel may fit easily between the points, 
f. 1 above; loosen set screw of head, and 
tap the gauge stick until the points coin- 
cide with a chisel mark previously made 
in centre of edge, tighten the set screw, 
and gauge between the mortise lines. A 
stile is then fixed in bench stops, f.2. Com- 
mence the cut at centre of mortise, work- 
ing towards the near end, removing the 
core as you go, then reverse the chisel and 

cut to far end of mortise. If through mortis- 
ing is being executed, cut half way through 
from one side, and then reverse the stuff. The 
core is removed with a core driver, viz., a 
piece of hard wood 9 in. long, rather smaller 
than the mortise, driven through the hole. 

Clearing out Stub Mortises. — Stub 
mortises are gauged for depth by glueing a 
piece of paper on the side of the chisel, f. 3, 
which indicates when the proper depth is reached. Stub mortises are cleared 
out with a small firmer chisel. It is essential for well-fitting work that the 




2. Mortising and Testing with Square. 



3. Paper Gauge for Depth. 



4. A Float. 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



65 



mortise should be upright. Fig. 2 opposite shows how to test with a try square, 

but it is usually sufficient to view the relative position of chisel and material 

when standing at the near end. 

, I Necessity for Upright Mortising.— Badly cut mortises 

~Q~~ prevent the rail lining up with the stile, necessitating paring 

the mortise, and glueing a 

veneer on the 

cheek. 



x 



•9 



on 
Unless 



opposite 
through 



2. A Dowel Rounder. 



Marking Dowels 
in a Butt Joint. 



mortises are cut vertically 

from either edge, a shelf or 

ridge is formed, which must be removed with a float. A 

cavity is thus formed between the opposite cheek and the 
tenon, which considerably lessens the strength of the joint. A 
float may be made with an old file, softened in the fire, and 
serrations or teeth filed up, and afterwards hardened again, 
f. 4 opposite. When mortising very heavy timber, it should 
be placed on saw stools, the workman either sitting astride 
or sideways whilst working, to keep it steady. 

Dowelling a Butt Joint. — To dowel a butt joint, f. 1 
above shows the position of dowels for material 3 in. square. 
Mark diagonals with a marking awl, intersecting in centre of 




stuff, gauge lines from face sides only, f in. and 2\ in. respec- 



3. Templates for 
Dowelling Rails. 




4. Marking Dovetails from Pins. 



tively from the edge, and where they intersect is the centre 
for boring holes. Glue the dowels into one piece, 
cut to length, and round off ends with dowel 
rounder, f. 2. A V-shaped groove cut along 
dowel with chisel, allows glue and air to escape, 
and prevents the joint splitting. To cramp to- 
gether long pieces of stuff, use iron cramps with 
lengthening bar, or a piece of quartering with 
cleats and folding wedges. 

Dowelling Rails into Legs. — Fix the legs 
together, and set out lines showing position of rails, 
prepare a zinc or veneer template to section of rail, 
f. 3, gauge centre line for boring points on end of 
rail, alter gauge, adding the amount of square 
required to be left on leg when the rails are glued 
in, and gauge legs between rail lines. Prick position 
of points through the template, and transfer to rail, 
pricking through with a marking awl, then lay the 
template on leg, the gauge line in centre of tem- 
plate corresponding with gauge line on leg, and 
prick through, then bore for dowels, which are 
glued into rails first, and finally knock together. 

Dovetailing is executed by two distinct 
methods. The first consists of cutting the pins first, f. 4, and in marking the dove- 
tails with an awl. This is a general rule in Continental workshops, but where a 

5 




5. Cutting Dovetails in Vice. 



66 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



x^\\^\N\\\\\\v\^\vv\\\\V j 





I. Proportions for Dove 
tailing;. 



large number of pieces require dovetailing, it will be found quicker to hand- 
screw them together, as in f. 5, previous page, and cut the dovetails first. 
Secret dovetail joints, which cannot be marked by this 
system, are executed by cutting pins first, and this 
method will also be found more convenient when 
handling very large carcase work. 

Setting out Dovetails. — The ratio between dovetail 
and pin varies according to the work in hand. Thus, in 
drawer work, the pins are very narrow, and the dovetail 
large, f. 1, a. This makes a strong joint, and is not un- 
sightly or cumbersome. Carcase dovetails that are con- 
cealed by plinth or cornice have the pins cut larger, the 
ratio of pin and dovetail being 1 : 3, f. 1, b. Again, cistern 
dovetailing required to resist the heat generated when 
soldering the lead lining, have both pin 
and dovetail equal ; any shrinkage which 
may then occur is evenly distributed 
throughout the whole case, f. 1, c. 

Angle of Dovetails. — The angle for 

cutting dovetails to obtain the maximum 

amount of strength from the joint may be 

either 1 in 6 or 1 in 8. It will be found 

advantageous to cut exterior dovetailing, 

such as drawers, instrument cases, &c, 

where they must have a neat appearance, 

1 in 8, and the heavier types for carcases, 

bases, and chests, 1 in 6. To obtain the bevel, set out 

a line square with the edge of a board, divide into six 

or eight parts as required, erect a perpendicular one 

division long, and set the bevel as shown in f. 2, or 

make a dovetail template to both angles, f. 3. 

Incorrect Angles for Dovetailing are illustrated in 

3. A Dovetail Template. 




2. Obtaining the Slope. 




r -A /_] 



4. Incorrect Angle for 
Dovetailing. 




5. Marking Dovetails with Saw, 



f. 4, where it will be noticed that a sharp angle considerably lessens the strength 
of the joint, due to the short grain. To execute the joint prepare the stuff to width 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



67 




1. A Housed Joint. 




and thickness, shoot one end of each quite square, and gauge the thickness of each 
piece on to both sides of the other piece. Set out dovetails, cut with saw, and to 
mark the dovetails fix as shown in f. 5 opposite, then draw a dovetail saw through 
the cuts, pressing the teeth against the end grain. When the dovetailed piece is 
removed, the saw marks show exact position of 
pins, which are then cut, care being taken to just 
leave the mark upon the wood. Cut the shoulders 
with dovetail saw, and with a bevelled firmer chisel 
chop away the waste, cutting half-way through 
from either side and slightly inwards, thus ensur- 
ing a close joint when dovetails are put together. 

Housed Dovetails. — Dovetail housed joints 
may be shouldered on one side only or both. 
To make the joint, f. 1, set out thickness of stuff 
on A, and gauge I in. per depth of dovetail. 
Gauge depth also on B. Mark dovetail on B, taper- 
ing slightly in its length. Cut with dovetail saw to 
gauge line, and remove core with chisel, finishing 
the depth with a router or " old woman's tooth," as 
in f. 2. Mark on each edge of B the width of dove- 
tail, cut the shoulder, and chisel or plane down to line, 
fitting and casing as required. This joint should 
fit hand tight. Very tightly fitting joints curve the 
housed piece. 

Mitreing. — This is the joint formed between two 
pieces of wood or moulding. Thus the bisec- 
tion between any of the angles in f. 3 are 
mitres, although the number of degrees in the 
angles vary. The term "right" mitre is ap- 
plied when the angle formed by the mouldings 
is 90 degs. " Internal " and " external " mitres 
are the terms applied when the moulding meets 
in an angle or corner, and at a salient angle 
respectively. Fig. 3, A, B, and C, shows "in- 
ternal" and " external" mitres. To find the angle 
of intersection between two straight lengths 
of moulding, place a piece of moulding close 
to the edge of framing, and draw a pencil 
along the edge, then repeat with adjoining 
edge, and the point of intersection joined to 
the corner of frame gives the correct angle 
for cutting. Where curved mouldings inter- 
sect with straight lengths, a curved mitre is 
necessary, or a straight mitre is obtained by 

obtaining geometrically a moulding section that will unite in a straight line. 
See chapter on " Practical Geometry and Setting Out." 

Mitreing Mouldings. — Mouldings must be well damped before cleaning 



2. Cutting Housed Joints. 



A " exTeKt£jfi_- mitrc, 

BAG" INTERNAL Oft 




Diagram showing Various Mitres. 




4. Use of a Mitre Cut. 



68 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




i. A " Mitre" Shooting Board 
Attachment. 




2. A Mitre Block Saw. 



up, thus swelling the minute ridges or bruises caused by spindle cutter or 
scratch stock. The longest lengths possible should be used, and all pieces 
must " follow on," i.e., be mitred in the same order as when in the length ; 

this avoids any possibility of faulty mitres, 
owing to slight differences in sections. 

Mitreing Panel Mouldings. — Cut one end 
of length in mitre cut (see f. 4, previous page), 
and then plane the mitre on shooting board, 
f. 1 on this page. This represents an ordinary 
shooting board with a hardwood block dry 
dowelled, having its edges at an angle of 45 degs. 
with the edge of board. Place the trying plane 
on its side, and hold the moulding firmly against 
the edges of block, then plane the 
mitre, mark moulding to length, 
and shoot off to the mark. Large 
mouldings for cornices, bases, and 
double bolection mouldings cannot 
be planed on the shooting board, 
and are held in mitre block, cut 
with block saw, f. 2, and planed 
down level with the surface. It is 
necessary with large mouldings to have a 
very accurate mitreing box. Fig. 3 illus- 
trates one for this purpose, and it is a very 
effectual guide for a fine panel saw. The 
" donkey ear shoot " is used for mitreing long 
edges of boards which cannot be held in a 
mitre block, f. 4. When mitreing " bolection " 
mouldings, a hardwood slip should be fixed 
on board to prevent the edge splitting away 
during planing, f. 1 opposite. 

Mitreing Breaks. — When mitreing 
round small breaks in cornices, pilasters, 
plinths, &c, a length of moulding, sometimes 
not exceeding \ in. long, cannot be held 
conveniently in block, because of the differ- 
ences between length, breadth, and thick- 
ness. A board is then prepared by screw- 
ing a piece of hardwood planed to angle 
of 45 degs. at one end, and a correspondingly 
thick piece to act as a rest for plane 
(see f. 2 opposite). Pins are driven in 
until their heads project T ^ in. from the 
board, and are filed to a sharp point. The moulding is pressed on to these 
points, close to the stop, and the moulding can be planed to the desired thick- 
ness, that is, level with both pieces. 




3. Mitre Box for Large Mouldings. 




4. A Donkey Ear Shoot. 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



69 




1. Shooting a Bolection 
Moulding. 




2. Shooting a Moulding: Break. 



Mitreing Stuck Mouldings. — " Stuck " mouldings on doors, framing, &c, 
require a mitre template, which is either of brass or wood. Fig. 3 below illus- 
trates a brass combination template, and the wood tem- 
plate illustrated in f. 4 consists of a rectangular block, 
rebated and then planed to angles of 45 degs. at each 
end. Fig. 5 illustrates a panel mitre template used 
for cutting the internal mitres of moulded panels. Fig. 
1, p. 70, shows the stile of a door, with a stuck moulding, 
which also forms the rebate to receive the panel. 

Use of Template.— Fix the stile in 
stops or vice, and cut away the moulding 
from mortise line. Then apply the tem- 
plate with its square edge against the right 
or mitre line, and fix with G cramp. A 
paring chisel is used to cut the mitre, and 
must be pressed firmly on the template, 
and the shoulders thrust forward. 

Scribing. — The term " scribing " ap- 
plies to two different methods of fitting joints. In the first case it is used to 
counteract the effects of shrinkage in the mouldings of doors and screens, when 
a mitred moulding would show an unsightly gap between the mitres. The rail 
moulding is cut and scribed to fit the stile, and in the 
event of shrinkage taking place, its effect is not apparent, 
the moulded rail shrinking along the stile, and, when 
the moulding is polished previous to scribing the joints, 
no unsightly mark is perceptible. Scribing in conjunc- 
tion with mortising and tenoning effects a stronger joint 
than mitreing, especially when used for connecting 
moulded rails in screens, &c. A simple illustration 
is the solid bar of a sash frame, f. 2, next page, 
where mitred joints are impossible, owing to their 
weakening effect ; other suitable applications are in con- 
nection with fitment cornices and dados, where a better 
fitting joint is obtained more rapidly than mitreing (f. 3, 
next page) and having the same appearance. The possi- 
bility of scribing mouldings is determined by the profile 
or section ; speaking generally, bold sections are most 
suitable, but it is difficult to make a clean scribe if the 
members are of slight curvature. Undercut mouldings 
of the Louis period, for instance, cannot be scribed. The 
second kind of scribing consists of fitting boards, furni- 
ture, or framing to irregular surfaces, and is accomplished 
by wedging the work in position, and setting it true to 
marks or with a spirit level. A pair of dividers is set 

to the greatest space between the job and the floor or wall, as the case may 
be, and is then drawn along the surfaces, one leg following the irregularities 
of floor, and the other making a line on the stuff, which is cut with bow saw 




A Brass Combination 
Mitre Template. 



4. Wooden Mitre 
Template. 




5. Panel Mitre 
Template. 



7o 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




i. Application of a Mitre Template. 




A" Scribed" Solid 
Sash Bar. 



and finished with spokeshave. The edges should be slightly bevelled from the 
outside face, ensuring a close fit, and the work will then stand as previously 

wedged in a relatively level position. 

Sharpening Gouges. — Gouges are di- 
vided into two groups, " Firmer " and " Scrib- 
ing." The "firmer" type have the ground 
bevel outside and are sharpened upon an oil- 
stone, similarly to an ordinary chisel, with a 
revolving motion to suit the curve, and the 
" burr " is then removed with a slip stone 
fitting into the inside curve and held quite 
fiat upon it. Unless the slip is bedded firmly 
inside the curve, a small bevel will result, 
which affects the cutting action. Scribing gouges 
are ground upon the inside, and sharpened by rubbing 
a slip stone moistened with oil along the bevel, until 
a slight burr is obtained ; this is removed by laying 
the gouge upon an oilstone, and rubbing lightly with 
a revolving action. Both kinds may be " stropped " 
upon a piece of hide to obtain a keener cutting edge. 
Working Mouldings with "hollows and 
rounds."— When a large quantity of mouldings are 
to be worked, it is usual to have them done on a 
spindle machine, but a knowledge of handwork 
mouldings is invaluable when short lengths are re- 
quired with little delay. To work the moulding, f. 4 
I -j ^^^f^^^^ below, gauge the stuff to width and thickness, and 
gauge lines coinciding with dotted lines in diagram, 
the portions marked can then be ploughed from the 
edge and the rebate worked. Complete the small 
hollow by cham- 
fering away and 
hollowing out 
with a small 
round, and the astra- 
gal with rebate and 
hollow plane. Hard- 
wood mouldings, con- 
taining a number of 
small members.should 
be first worked as de- 
scribed, and finished off with a steel cutter 
fixed in a scratch stock. 

Stuck Mouldings are worked with 
a moulding plane, the sole and cutter 

shaped conversely to the section required. The English pattern moulding plane 
is held at an angle indicated by lines on the forepart of plane, shown in f. 5, 




3. Scribing a Dado 
Moulding. 



: ; i--- a , 


jr 


' '"'i^VXVs 





4. Working a Mould- 
ing. 




5. Using a Moulding Plane. 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



7i 



and must be held quite steady, or varying sections will result. French pattern 
moulding planes are held quite upright, and are recommended. The use of 
these planes is restricted to small ogees, ovolos, hollows, and broken ogees, seldom 
exceeding f in. wide, but with repetition work planes of much larger sections 
may be made to advantage. Fig. 1 illustrates the method of scratching small 
mouldings when planes are not available, but its use is practically confined to 
very hard, crisp wood, which lends itself readily to a scraping action. Fig. 2 
is the section of a pilaster, showing scratch stock in position and the moulding 
formed. Curved mouldings are worked in a similar way, the butt of the scratch 
stock being curved to fit the sweep or shape. 





1. Scratching a Small Moulding. 



2. Scratching a Panel on Pilaster. 



Use of Rubbers. — To finish straight lengths of moulding with glass-paper, 
prepare wood rubbers (see f. 3) shaped a little quicker than the various members 
of moulding section. The glass-paper is then held firmly round them, and rubbed 
to and fro along the length, using finer glass-paper as the marks left by the plane 
are removed. All rubbers should be made 4 in. long, and kept in a pre- 
pared box, ensuring a quick selection of rubbers to fit any section. Curved 
lengths are cleaned up with small cork rubbers, such as are illustrated in 
f. 3, a, b, and c. 

Toothing. — A toothing plane is used for roughening groundworks before 
veneering, and also for removing inequalities in veneer, due chiefly to faulty 
cutting. The iron is fixed almost per- 
pendicularly in the plane stock, and 
has a number of minute serrations on 
the flat side, which, when the iron is 
ground and sharpened, form a saw-like 
cutting edge. 

The iron is sharpened in the 
ordinary way, but the burr is not re- 
moved on the oilstone, instead of which 

it is driven into the end grain of a very hard block of wood, this sufficing to 
remove the burr. 

When toothing a groundwork or panel for veneering, the strokes are first 
taken in diagonal directions from corner to corner, and straight strokes right 
through the board to finish ; this removes the ridges left by the trying plane, 
and the roughened surface materially assists the cohesion of veneer. Toothing 
is also useful for flatting a veneered surface before scraping, especially when the 
surface is composed of various veneers, differing in thickness ; this applies, of 
course, only to saw-cut stuff. 

Scraping is the process immediately following the " smoothing up " of 




OP 

3. Papering up Rubbers. 



72 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



material, previous to glass-papering. A scraper is a thin, flat piece of steel 
4 in. by 3 in. and T V thick. To sharpen it, first file both edges quite square. 
Rub down the edges on oilstone until all file marks are removed, leaving a 
perfectly smooth edge. Then lay the scraper upon the stone, and rub the 
burr off the flat sides. Transfer to bench as in f. 1, and rub down with a scraper 
sharpener, afterwards holding it vertical, f. 2, with the sharpener held at an angle 
of 85 degs. with surface. Take a sharp stroke upwards, thus making a slight 
burr or cutting edge with each successive resharpening. The angle at which 
sharpener is held is reduced slightly. A carefully sharpened scraper frequently 
permits of about twelve resharpenings in all, then refiling, &c, is repeated. 
Scraper shavings are very fine, and give a finely finished surface before glass- 
papering. 

Hard woods only are scraped, but oak, having a prominent silver grain 
figure, must be papered up after smoothing. A scraper removes the softer 
material, and leaves the silver grain above the surface, which is very unsightly 
when polished. 





1. Use of Scraper Sharpener. 



2. Vertical Sharpening of Scraper. 



Glass-paper is made in seven grades or sizes, ranging from 2\ to 000 Flour 
glass-paper, but cabinetmakers rarely use a stronger size than M. 2. The purpose 
of glass-paper is to produce a perfectly flat surface after scraping, but it should 
be very sparingly used, good cabinetmakers seldom using stronger than F. 2. 
Glass-paper is manufactured by covering a sheet of coarse paper on one side 
with thin glue, and sprinkling with minute particles of sand and glass. It must 
be used quite dry, as when in a limp condition the glue is clamp, which causes the 
glass-paper to clog. To clean off pine or white wood for a painted surface F. 2 
is used, and rubbed diagonally and across the grain ; but for polished surfaces in 
any wood all strokes must be in the direction of the grain. First scour the stuff 
with a piece of F. 2 placed round a cork rubber, size 4 by 3 by 1 in., taking care 
that no loose ends are left, which scratch the surface and round off the sharp 
edges, then rub down with ll, finishing with No. 1 or Flour paper. In framing 
and doors the muntings are papered right through, then the rails, and finally 
the stiles, afterwards rubbing with a circular motion over the shoulders, and 
finishing with straight strokes until all marks are removed. Very soft or spongy 
material should be sized first, thus securing the loose fibres which would otherwise 
rise up and tear, but the rubber should not be moved too rapidly, or the glue will 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



73 



tasticfefcsacSXSXS; 



=4 



I. a, b, 



Brass Screw Cups ; 
Lath Screws. 



become softened in the glass-paper, and cause it to clog. The special treatment 
of inlaying in pearl, ivory, metal, &c, will be dealt with in a succeeding chapter. 
Screwing and Nailing. — Screws are used in cabinetwork for fastening the 
various parts of work together — carcases, fittings, &c, and are made of both iron 
and brass, with round and flat heads. For fixing locks, hinges, &c, brass screws 
are usual, but oak work demands the use of brass screws, owing to the secretion 
of an acid which corrodes iron, and causes a black stain to appear in the 
surrounding wood. When boring to receive screws, a nose-shell or gimlet bit 
is used, boring in the case of a 2-in. screw about ih in. 
deep, but, of course, no hard or fast rule can be laid 
down for timber of varying texture. To fix metal 
plates to wood, bore the entire length of shank, and 
the screw will worm its way into the side of the hole 
securely ; round-headed screws are generally used for 
fixing metal work. 

To obtain a flush surface the material is counter- 
sunk to receive the screw head, which, when driven 

home, is quite flush with material. Brass cups arc used in work that is required 
to be detached frequently, such as fillets, beads, &c. (see f. I, a and b). Lath 
screws, as the name suggests, f. I, c, are for screwing into the laths of plaster 
partitions where ordinary screws would split the laths and prevent a secure 
fixing. 

Bradding and Pinning. — Although nails and brads are not used to any 
extent in good cabinetwork, their use is sometimes applied to various jobs 
outside furniture production, executed by cabinetmakers. The various kinds 
are French nails, round, square, and elliptic in section, f. 2, A, B, C. They may 

be driven in almost any direction without pre- 
vious boring and without splitting the wood, 
unless near the edge of a board ; the head 
ends are roughened for greater holding power, 
and they are used chiefly in rough case work. 
Sizes vary from I to 4 in. long, but cast and 
wrought nails, f. 2, D, E, F, may also be driven 
without boring ; their use is chiefly for fixing 
skeleton framings, &c, to receive fittings or 
panelling. These nails are rather wedge-shape 
in section as well as tapering in length, and 
have a tendency to " draw " or " drift " towards 
the wide edge, f. 2, M ; this is counteracted by inclining the nail in the opposite 
direction before driving. When nailing the ends of boards together, the nail 
points should incline towards each other in pairs, thus forming a kind of 
dovetailed joint. French panel pins are both round and elliptic in section, 
f. 2, G, H. Although the latter type are not much used, sizes range from 
f to 2 in., used for fixing mouldings to painted works ; they do not require 
boring, unless in hardwood, when a hole is made with bradawl about three- 
fourths of their length. French brads, f. 2, J, K, vary from i to f in. ; similar 
uses to panel pins. Veneer pins, f. 2, L, are really thin pieces of wire pointed 



B-C 

9D 



V v 



E • F • G 



l-J-K-L- 



Jn\ 



Various Nails and Pins. 




74 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

at one end, used for securing veneer during the process of laying with cauls ; they 
are left projecting about -J in. from stuff, and withdrawn after the veneer is laid. 
Needle points, f. 2, I, previous page, are for fixing enamelled and gilt mouldings, 
they are driven in without previous boring, and snapped off level with surface. 

Preparing Surfaces consists of filling any cavities or imperfections in 

the wood, such as are caused by the removal of loose knots, &c, before 

veneering, painting, or polishing. A stopping composed of litharge and glue 

is best, but a mixture of glue and whiting, or glue and plaster, 

is effective ; either should be well pressed into the hole whilst 

hot, and allowed to project beyond the surface to allow for 

shrinkage whilst drying, and then levelled down. These mixtures 

apply only to veneered or painted work ; polished work must 

have any holes filled with inlays of a similar wood, but it must 

be clearly understood that stopping of any kind is unsatisfactory 

in polished work, and should only be resorted to when rendered 

absolutely necessary by such circumstances as the concealment 

of screws for fixing, and then only in inconspicuous positions. 

Pelleting is an effective method ; a piece of wood, with the 

direction of grain as indicated in sketch, is turned to the given 

Method of Pel- shape ; the screw is sunk below the surface, and the pellet glued 

leting a Hole. in and levelled off when dry. For larger holes diamond-shaped 

inlays are necessary. Cut to shape, lay over hole, mark round 

with awl and mortise to depth, glue the inlay in position and level off when 

dry, a bevelled edge ensuring a close joint. 

Removing Stains. — Oak and mahogany which have been stained with ink 
or by contact with iron can be cleaned by the application of a solution of oxalic 
acid. The crystals are allowed to dissolve in warm water, to which is afterwards 
added a few drops of spirits of nitre ; this preparation applied to a stain will 
remove it almost instantly. The surface should then be cleansed with water. 

Raising Bruises. — Bruises in furniture or boards can be raised by applying 
a wet rag to them, which is heated by the application of warm irons, thus 
causing the fibres to swell into position again. 



Carcase Construction. 

Definition of Carcase — Procedure in Making — Setting out Carcase and Housed Dovetails 
— Cutting ditto — Glueing up and Testing — -Construction of Plinths and Cornices — 
Varieties of ditto — Faced up and Veneered Frames — Making a Mitred Frame 
— Cutting Grooves for Tongues — Glueing up — Blocking Testing for Squareness — 
Mitreing Mouldings — Cornice Frames — Mitreing Facings — Cornice Mouldings 
— Glueing ditto — Margin Gauges. 

Definition of Carcase. — A " carcase " consists of a " box " which may be 
divided with partitions to receive doors, drawers, &c, as in wardrobes, cabinets, 
chests of drawers, and stationery cases. The example illustrated in f. 1 opposite 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



75 




shows a carcase used in combination with a plinth and cornice, door and drawer, 
forming a hanging wardrobe, but large work, such as dwarf bookcases, library 
break-front cases, and winged wardrobes, are composed of three or more carcases, 
the number and size being de- 
termined by the design, size of 
available material, and adap- 
tation to easy handling during 
packing and transport. So 
that in the execution of a 
complete wall case or similar 
fitting for a building abroad, 
all the conditions stated above 
are considered. Similar con- 
struction, however, with but 
slight variations is applied to 
all carcase work. 

To Make a Carcase. — 
The stuff is first planed up, 
gauged to width and thickness, 
and the ends hand-screwed to- 
gether. The lengths and divi- 
sion are then squared across the 

ed ges 

.,, i. A Wardrobe Carcase, 

with a 

try square, 

and a large wooden square, f. 2, is used to return the 
lines on both sides. The top and bottom of carcase 
are set out similarly, and the division, which is shorter, 
by the difference in length between housed and lapped 
dovetails. All pieces are then planed to width, rebating 
ends to receive the back, as shown in the working draw- 
ing, and the inside surfaces are cleaned up before gauging 
for dovetails. 

Setting out Dovetails. — Gauge the length of dove- 
tail on the ends, and also across the ends of both top and 
bottom, then gauge their thickness on to the insides of 
ends. Square division lines across carcase 
ends and set out the diminished dovetails 
as follows : — Gauge lines § and 4^- in. from 
front edge between division lines, this space 
representing the length of actual dovetail, 
the remainder of division simply being 
housed into end ; this forms a strong joint, 
but frequently divisions, &c, are dovetailed 
the whole width. Set out dovetail as in f. 3, 
removing the darkened portion with a chisel, undercutting side a to form a 




2. A Wooden Square. 




Cutting a Diminished Dovetail. 



7 6 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




i. Tongueing a Mitre. 



dovetail ; a tenon saw can then be inserted and the cuts made right across 
ends ; pare away core with a " firmer " chisel and finish to depth by routering 
away with an " old woman's tooth." Gauge and cut the dovetails on division 
ends, carefully test sockets, and fit until the division drives home hand tight. 
Set out the dovetails on carcase ends, with a small dovetail back and front 
(refer to f. I, b, p. 66), thus securing a close joint at shoulder should the ends have 
a tendency to work hollow on the outsides. Place ends on bench and saw dove- 
tails, chopping away the sockets. To mark the top and bottom, either is laid on 
bench, inside face upwards, and the end is placed exactly on gauge line, marking 
with awl as shown in f. 4, p. 65. The lines of dovetails are left on the stuff after 
sawing. This method also applies to secret lapped and 
mitred dovetail joints which cannot be marked by draw- 
ing the saw through dovetail cuts. After marking cut the 
shoulders with saw and remove waste between dovetails, 
then knock carcase together dry, and if satisfactory pro- 
ceed to glue together as follows :— 

Glueing up. — An assistant should hold the ends 

upon the bench face, edges down, with the division glued 

into position ; the top and bottom are then glued and 

driven home by striking with a hammer a hardwood block 

placed across the dovetails. To test for squareness measure diagonally with a 

thin lath or rod ; when the lengths between opposite corners, i.e., diagonals, are 

equal, the case is quite square. 

Construction of Plinths. — So many and various methods are in vogue for 
constructing plinth and cornice frames, that only two can be dealt with in this 
chapter ; these are characteristic types, and reference to the chapter on " Carcase 
Work" will show the reader a great number of varied examples. Plinth frames 
are constructed either of (a) solid wood, (/>) groundwork dovetailed and faced 
up, or (c) dovetailed and veneered. Where a 
solid plinth is required the joints at front 
corners are either plain mitred and blocked 
secret mitre, dovetailed, or tongued mitred 
and blocked. Plinths that are faced up are 
usually dovetailed, and a thin |-in. facing of 
figured wood is mitred round the pine or 
whitewood groundwork ; through dovetails 
are used which, though shrinking somewhat 
after glueing, do not affect the outside appear- 
ance, such as would be the case in a veneered 
groundwork ; the contraction causing the 
veneer to show distinctly the shape of dove- 
tails when polished. For veneered plinths the joints must be similar to those 
used for a solid plinth frame. 

To Make a Mitred Plinth Frame. — Plane up all stuff true, and gauge to 
width and thickness. Set out full length of front plinth rail and also one end of 
side rails with a set mitre. Square across the length of side rails and shoot to 




2. Glueing up a Tongued Mitre. 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



77 



mark. Square back rail to length for diminished dovetail, making the width equal 
to width of side rail plus moulding thickness ; this obviates the necessity of glue- 
ing a filling piece at back between the plinth moulding. Fix one end of front rail 
in mitre block, cut with block saw, and shoot down level with block, and repeat with 
the remaining mitres ; then place two mitres together (see f. i opposite) forming 
a right angle, permitting the use of a marking gauge to mark position of tongues 
which are cut with dovetail saw and 
chiselled to depth if the rails do not 
exceed 6 in. in width, but if above 
that width a plough can be used. Set 
out diminished dovetail for the back 
and fit together ; this should set back 
about I -J- ft. from ends of rails, to per- 
mit of scribing over skirting, if neces- 
sary. Blocks are then glued as shown 
in f. 2 opposite, which when dry are 
hand-screwed together with mahogany 
or oak cross tongues inserted in the 




I. Section through a Cornice. 



grooves, then glue the back rail be- 
tween the ends, and square up as with carcase, and when dry mitre round the 
moulding, one end of which is glued first, then the front, and the return end 
rail last. 

Cornice Frames are almost identical with plinths ; the back rail is lapped 
dovetailed flush at back, equalling in width the side rail plus thickness of frieze 
moulding ; the diagram, f. I above, is a section through one end ; the frame 
is through dovetailed at front corners, and the frieze is formed by glueing a 
facing upon the framework, thus also forming a rebate to 
receive cornice mouldings. It will be noticed that the 
cornice mouldings project above the framework, this is to 
allow for dustboard, which is screwed in position and 
levelled off flush with moulding. After the framework is 
dovetailed, glued, trued, and toothed up, the facings are 
mitred and well warmed, then hand-screwed in position. 
When dry level off at bottom and finish to true width with 
shoulder or iron rebate plane ; then mitre round frieze 
moulding and glue blocks about 6 in. apart as indicated 
in section, f. I ; mitre and glue smaller part of cornice into position, following with 
the large piece, hand-screwing as shown. Cornice frames made of solid hardwood 
require a margin gauge to glue moulding in correct position ; one or two of these 
gauges are placed at intervals along the frame, f. 2, thus causing a perfectly equal 
frieze, facilitating speedy execution of the work. 

On cheap work cornice mouldings are "pitched" and fixed round the 
carcase with blocks, &c, on to a frame as above. In a like manner a plinth 
piece is "planted" round the ends and front of a chest of drawers and so 
becomes a fixed part of the carcase. The loose plinth and cornice frame 
represent the best and most convenient forms of construction. 



■ / 


![: 




! 






t 




pGAUGC' : 




,) 



2. Use of Margin 
Gauge. 



78 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



Door Making. 

Example of Wardrobe Door — Setting out — Shaping Rail — Fitting Together — Mitreing 
Moulding — Glueing up — Testing: Five-Panelled Door — Setting out — Glueing 
Centre Frame — Fitting Cross Rails, &c. — Glueing up : Barred Doors — Methods of 
Forming Bars — Mitreing Mouldings — Jointing Stars — Use of Templates : Framed 
and Rebated Door with Curved Corners — Setting out — Shaping Rails — Rebating — 
Long and Short Shoulders — Glueing up : Routering — Circular Rings for Corners — 
Curved Mitres in Mouldings — Flush Doors — Laminating — Cross Clamping — Mitre 
Clamping — Slipping Edges — Veneering. 

Preparing a Wardrobe Door. — The five illustrations below show various 
types of doors. Their construction embraces the principles applied to all kinds 
of doors which are straight in plan and section. Fig. i represents a wardrobe 
door with a glass panel. After preparing the stuff, hand-screw the stiles together, 
and set out divisions for mortises on inside edges ; then fix the rails and square 






Diagrams illustrating Various Types of Doors. 

shoulder lines across, returning them on both sides of each piece ; gauge lines for 
the rebate, which, in this case, is equal to width of moulding ; gauge mortise 
and tenon lines ; cut and saw ditto, and prepare a template from the drawing 
to mark the shaped top rail, cut with bow saw, and finish with files and glass- 
paper ; work mouldings and rebates as described on p. 70. Then place the pieces 
on bench, and mark the stiles and rails as f. 1 opposite, fix one stile in stops 
as shown, and fit the head rail, testing across the shoulder with a try square ; if 
the shoulder requires shortening on one side, proceed as shown in f. 2 opposite, 
until it lines exactly with the surface of stile ; repeat with bottom rail, and if 
both are fitted truly, they will be out of winding one with the other. Cut the 
mitres as shown in f. 1, p. 70, and again test ; if true, with shoulders well up, or 
" tight," place two bearers upon the bench, out of winding with each other ; 
glue mortises with a pine stick and tenons with a brush ; then knock together 
and cramp up on the bearers. If the door is well fitted the cramps may be 
removed directly after the door is squared up ; it is then allowed to dry, pre- 
ferably in a hanging position. Stuck mouldings when used as above are usually 
polished before " mitreing." 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



79 



Five- Panelled Door, f. 4 opposite. — The stiles, rails, cross rails, and centre 
frame stuff are all marked for mortises, tenons, and length ; then gauge on the 
rebate, mortise and tenon line, and cut all mortises and tenons. Rebate the 
inside of centre frame, and mitre together as shown in f. 3 below, finally glueing 
up after the addition of hand-screwing 
blocks, somewhat similar to those used 
in plinth frame, the mitres to be 
tongued up before glueing together. 
When quite dry the rebating is com- 
pleted on all the pieces, and the short 
rails fitted into centre first, following on 
with the others, each being tested separ- 





1. Fitting up a Door Frame. 




2. Use of Shoulder Plane. 



3. Fitting up the Centre Part. 



ately for truth ; the centre panel is fitted in the centre part, so that the cramps 
do not strain the framing and cause mitres to spring. 

Barred Doors, f. 2 opposite, are executed by two distinct methods. The 
first consists of fitting a board inside the rebate after the 
door is glued together, and setting out the moulding lines 
upon the front, f. 4 alongside. Then the mouldings are mitred 
to the given lines and shapes, glueing the mitres only. The 
door is then laid face downwards on the bench, and " slats " 
or " bars " are fitted into the grooves at the back of the 
moulding, stub mortised into rails and stiles. Corners are 
afterwards strengthened by glueing a piece of thin calico or 
silk about 2 in. long where the bars meet, this is concealed 
by the glass " beads " when the door is complete. Second 
method — The frame is set out inside the rebate with slips 
and a striking knife, the slips equalling the distance from 
the frame corner to inside of bars ; a second mark, ^ in. 
distant from the first, is made for width of the stub mortise, 
and repeated for a succeeding bar ; the bars or slats are then 
fixed in position, halving them if possible, or dovetailing the angles. Vee 
the diagonals, glue and fit the mouldings on face side, cutting mitres with 




4. Procedure in 
Barred Doors. 



8o 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




I. A Moulding 
Template. 



template, f. i below. All mouldings in both cases must be polished before 
mitreing. 

Panelled Door with Hollow Corners, f. 5, p. 78. — In this case, it is 
assumed that the frame is rebated on in the inside of face, with a moulding 
glued round which projects about § in. to receive the panel (see f. 2 below). 
This is perhaps the best construction for doors of this kind, because if the 
moulding is " stuck " on the stiles and rails, carving is required 
to finish the corners, but when separate mouldings are mitred 
round, the hollow corners are obtained by having a " circle " 
or ring turned, and cut into four parts for the corners. It will 
be necessary to have long and short shoulders on the rails of 
this frame. These are obtained by setting out the mortise lines 
on the edges of stiles, and shoulder line a, b, f. 2, at each end of 
rails. The long shoulder a is returned on the front of rail, and 
b upon the back ; then proceed to cut mortises and tenons, fit and 
glue frame together, after shaping and rebating the stiles and 
rails ; when dry, the door is bevelled off, and, in order that the 
projection of moulding above the surface be uniform throughout, 
it will be necessary to router the rebate from the face side. Prepare a router, 
f. 3, by screwing two pieces of wood together, and insert a § -in. plough iron ; 
set the iron, allowing it to project just the required depth of rebate, and scratch 
or scrape the superfluous wood away ; if the fitting of the door has been care- 
fully done, only a few shavings need be re- 
moved. Glass-paper the face of door and glue 
mouldings in rebates, the mitres being curved to 
obtain a clean intersection. 

Flush Doors. — The construction of f. 3, p. 
78, may be either by " laminating," " cross clamp- 
ing," or "mitre clamping." It is not usual in 
flush veneered doors to frame the groundwork together, owing to the shrinkage 
of panels, and consequent splitting of veneer. When a groundwork is laminated 
or clamped, shrinkage does not split the material. For a laminated door glue 
either three or five thicknesses of wood together, called "three" and "five ply," 

each layer in a cross direction, i.e., 
in the case of " five ply," three 
layers are placed with the grain 
running in the direction of length 
of door, and two across, placed 
alternately, and well glued to- 
gether in veneering press ; when dry the door is planed up, and the edges 
slipped, and veneered on both sides. For clamped doors use well-seasoned 
timber, and either "cross clamp" or "mitre clamp" the ends, the latter 
method making the best job ; then veneer both sides as for laminating. 

Flush doors were largely used by Chippendale, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton, 
as this method gave the widest possible surface for decoration as well as the 
opportunity of making the most of good figure in veneer. 



^=vZ) 



2. Rebated Frame with Moulding. 




3. A Depth Router. 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



81 



Drawer Work. 

First Method of Drawer Making — Preparing the Stuff— Fitting the Front and 
Back — Cutting the Dovetails — An Alternate Method — Glueing up — Testing for 
Squareness — Slipping a Drawer — Working the Slip— Fitting the Bottom — Slot- 
screwing same — Necessity for Munting in Large Drawers — Fixing the Munting — 
" Bead and Flush " Slipping. 



Before dealing with this subject, a few remarks are necessary regarding the 
construction of the carcase or framing respectively. The whole depth of a 
drawer must accurately fit the opening, and it should gradually tighten as it is 
withdrawn. To effect this the carcase is made slightly larger at the back, both 
in length and width. In the case of a nest of drawers, or a pedestal, the carcase 
is made wider, and the runners slightly thinner at the back. The drawer itself 
is also left slightly full at the back. Wax or similar substances need not be 
rubbed upon a well-fitted drawer. 

First Method. — Proceed by first planing all the drawer stuff to thickness, 
scraping and glass-papering the inside surfaces. Shoot all bottom edges, and then 
mark the pieces as f. I, left-hand side 
and back also. Plane the sides to 
width until they slide into the carcase, 
then withdraw, and pin them together 
and shoot to length. Now carefully fit 
the drawer front until it enters the 
opening about J in., as previously 
mentioned. The back is left slightly 
longer, and is marked as follows : — 
Place it on the bench, then withdraw 
the front and lay it upon the back, 

with the inside faces together and the bottom edges level. Draw a sharp 
marking awl along each end, saw off the waste, and plane the sides upon a 
shooting board, just leaving the mark on the stuff. Gauge the thickness of 

sides on the front and back, then on the lap on 
the end grain of front, and thickness of back in 
the sides. Set a marking gauge to •§ in., and gauge 
line for bottom edge of back in sides. The front 
is then grooved with a No. I plough iron T 3 ^ in. 
deep, and f in. from the edge. To cut the dove- 
tails, space out and mark with a dovetail template, 
put both together in vice, and cut the dovetails at 
both ends, see f. 2, then proceed as explained in dovetailing. 

An Alternate Method is to fit the front only into the carcase or framing 
entering about J in., and marking the back as before. Both sides are pinned to- 
gether, and the bottom edges shot true, and then squared to length. To complete 




1. Marking Drawer Front and Sides. 



r 



•WIDTH- OF- 



2. Drawer Side Dovetails. 



82 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




i. Drawer Slips. 



the drawer, proceed as described in preceding method. When glueing together, 
in each case carefully glue the dovetails on one side, and lay flat on bench, glue 
sockets in drawer front and back, and place in position, pressing down with the 
hands, then glue the other side, place dovetails in the sockets, and tap each 
joint with a hammer until quite close. To test for square- 
ness, use a 12-in. try square, placed against the front, and 
press the corners of the drawer until the sides coincide with 
the steel blade. Or the diagonals of drawer may be measured, 
and the drawer adjusted until both lengths from corner to 
corner are quite equal in length. The drawer is now ready 
for slipping, viz., pieces of wood, shaped to the sections shown 
in f. I, A, which are glued into the sides to receive the bottom. 
These pieces increase the running edges of the bottom, and 
greatly strengthen the drawer where it is mostly worn. To work the slips, 
shoot the edge of a iVin. piece of wood, and lay on the bench, fixing with 
holdfast, and allowing the edge to project slightly over 
the front of bench, plough the groove with a No. I iron, 
£ in. deep, set T % in. from edge, and then round with a 
smoothing plane and glass-paper, gauge entire width of 
slip and cut off with tenon saw. The edge of the stuff is 
then shot again, and the process repeated. Saw one end 
of the slip square in a mitre cut, and notch it to fit the 
back, as in f. 2. Where a number of drawers are made, 
they are placed side by side on the bench, and the 
slips glued in position, securing two at once with small 
hand-screws or clips. Drawers exceeding 2 ft. in length 
should have a centre munting about 2 in. wide dove- 
tailed into the front, rebated and screwed at the back (see f. 3) ; this should be 
glued and screwed exactly in centre of drawer, the dovetailed portion being 
filled in and levelled off to the edge. 

Fitting the Bottom. — Shoot the front edge and 
square one end, then mark and shoot to length. 
Work a f-in. bevel on three sides, testing with a 
" mullet." After preparing for slot-screwing, drive 
bottoms home, and glue two small blocks underneath, 
which prevents the drawer bottom shrinking out of 
the groove ; care must be taken not to overturn the 
slotted screws, for shrinkage may occur, and the 
Fig. 1, b, illustrates a "bead and flush slip," suitable 
for small drawers. The bottom in this case is rebated into the grooves, 
shouldered underneath at the front edge, and on the top for the end edges. A 
mistake frequently made in this method is to rebate on one side only, causing 
an unsightly joint on the inside at the front. 

A flush bottom to a drawer adds to the flat surface room, and in this respect 
is a distinct advantage over the method shown in f. 2. 




2. Fitting a Drawer 
Slip. 




3. Rebated Drawer 
Munting. 

bottom is likely to split. 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



83 



Curved Work. 

Building up Curved Rims — Preparation of Templates— Cutting the Segments — Fit- 
ting same — Band-sawing to Finished Shape — Curved Drawer Fronts — Cutting 
from Solid Stuff — Glueing up — Wide Carcase Ends — "Flushing off" Curved Fronts 
— Upright and Landscape Curved Panels— Bevel Jointed— Curved Planes — 
Circular Carcases — Glueing up — Planing to Shape — An Alternate Method for 
thin Panels — Ogee Shapes — Drying — Building up the Core — Toothing and Veneer 
ing — Use of Steam Box— Curved Framed Doors — Dovetailing the Rails — 
Dowelling same — Glueing up and Testing — Levelling off — Building up Galleries 
and Slats — Preparing the Template — Veneering the Curve — Alternate Method 
with Core— Rounding the Edge— Building up Slats, Cores, and Templates. 



So many different methods are employed in the production of curved work 

that only fundamental principles can be treated in this section. A number 

of examples illustrating these principles are given, and a thorough understanding 

of these will assist in working out problems of single and double curvature. 

The latter kind is so involved with practical geometry that examples are 

given in the chapter which deals with that subject. 

Kidney, oval, or circular table rims are usually built up with segments, or 

laminated, i.e., in layers. The work must first be set out on a board, showing 

the thickness of rim, projection of top, and 

fixing or connection of legs to the frame. If 

this board is shaped to the top line, a template 

is thus formed, from the edge of which all lines 

indicating projections or thicknesses will be 

parallel. Supposing the rim to be 2\ in. wide, 

four layers are required to build the shape, the 

bottom layer is divided into four or more parts, 

according to the shape and size of rim, and 

the joints of the second layer of segments 
exactly between those of the previous 

layer, thus overlapping each piece, so that each 
alternate layer has similar segments. 

To Prepare the Segments, mark out on 
board the joints of one layer in full lines, the next 
in dotted pencil lines. Roughly shape a piece of 
|-in. whitewood to outside line, and pin to board 
(see f. 1 above), mark the joint lines, and measure 
the distance of rim line from the edge, f. 1, a. Set 
a tee gauge to this size, and gauge the whitewood 

template. Another tee gauge is now set to inside line of rim, and gauged as 

before. This process is continued until all the templates are marked. Then 

number each to correspond with board (see diagram). Spokeshave and file the 

templates to true shape, and mark out required number on f-in. stuff. In 




fall 



1. Preparing Curved Templates. 




2. Segmental Building up. 



8 4 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




i. Building up Panels. 



some cases these segments are cut £ in. outside the lines, and the rim band- 
sawn after glueing is completed. Band-sawing may be dispensed with by 
proceeding as follows : — After the segments are marked out and sawn, work to 

true shape with circular plane or spokeshaves. 

-,_ Fit the bottom layer on board, and pin it 

in position, glueing the butt joints only. Next 

fit and glue each segment in the succeeding 

layer (see f. 2, p. 83) until completed, levelling 

off when dry, and repeating the same process 

for each other layer. Remove the rim from 

board, withdraw the pins, and plane or spokeshave the outside of rim until 

it fits the board, then tee gauge to thickness, and remove the superfluous 

wood. 

Curved Drawer Fronts are cut from the solid if wood of sufficient 
thickness is available. Should a 9-in. front be required, two pieces are 
glued together, and then band-sawn to shape. Some- 
times very wide shaped ends are wanted in carcase 
work. The best plan then is to cut the shapes from best 
9-in. stuff, and glue them together, levelling off when dry. 
The waste pieces are also glued up and used as cauls 
when veneering. It is advisable when several curved 
drawers are fitted into a carcase to finish the shape 
correctly by temporarily stopping the drawers so that 
they project slightly beyond the rails, and then levelling 
them down. This is called " flushing off." The stops 
are then removed and set back, allowing the fronts to 
form a small square. 

Upright and Landscape Curved Panels. — Up- 
right panels are made to any shape by bevel jointing 
flat pieces of wood, and glueing them together, then 

the)- are planed to shape with concave and convex-shaped planes (see diagram, 
f. 1 above). 

Circular Carcases are also built up in this way. A skeleton frame is 
fitted to the shape shown in f. 2, and each piece or " segment " dry-jointed 

until the carcase is completed. Then glue all the 

joints together and bind round tightly with very wet 

webbing, remove the skeleton frame, and thoroughly 

heat the whole over a shaving blaze ; this has the 

effect of softening the glue and drying the webbing, 

which contracts and forces the glue out of the joints. 

About twelve hours are allowed for drying, and then 

the true shape is set out at each end, and planed 

down to the lines with shaped planes. 

An Alternate Method for curved panels where a number of similarly 

shaped ones are required, consists of bending straight-grained mahogany and 

veneering both sides at once between shaped cauls. This is the most 

economical method, but it is practically restricted to stuff not exceeding 




Jointing up a Cir- 
cular Carcase. 





i 


// coul- ■ 




y. 


k 




CLAMP" 







3. Bending and Veneering 
a Curved Panel. 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



ss 




i. Laminating an "Ogee" 
Shaped Panel. 



T 7 F in. thick. For quick curves or ogee forms the " core " or " ground " work 
is made up with thin wood, two or three thicknesses bending easily to any- 
desired shape. As an example illustrating the first method we will take the 
panel shown in f. 3 opposite. Prepare pine cauls to fit both faces, plane up, 
tooth, size, and glue the core, pin veneer in position, 
thoroughly heat the cauls, and put the whole together 
with paper between and hand-screw down. If possible, 
leave it in the cauls for two or three days, so that it 
can thoroughly set, and when the panel is removed it 
should be screwed to curved bearers or clamps about 
1 in. thick, which prevents casting whilst finally drying. 
In cases where the curve is ogee shape (see f. 1 
opposite) or too quick to permit this method, substi- 
tute two thicknesses of thin stuff for the core, and 
proceed as described above. The landscape panel 
shown in f. 1 alongside would be executed by preparing 

cauls to fit both sides, and in steaming two pieces of bare {-in. stuff, the whole 
being hand-screwed between heated cauls until quite dry ; six or eight reheatings 
and screwing up are necessary, and then the core only is glued up. When dry, level 

down any small kinks, and tooth both surfaces, 
and veneer on both sides with the same cauls. 

Description of Steam Box. — This may be 
improvised by procuring a large flat tin or zinc 
tray about li in. deep, with a cupboard or box 
fitting exactly over the tray, and having a door 
at one end ; bearers are fixed inside so that the 
stuff rests edge downwards. This steam box is placed on a stove or other heating 
accommodation, causing it to fill with steam, which renders the wood pliable. 

Application of Bending - to Curved Ends. — There are many instances 
where bending as described is used, viz., in semi- 
circular ends of cases, chests, and caskets. The 
example illustrated is a violin case with curved 
end, plan shown in f. 2. Prepare cauls for the 
wide end, fitting both sides of shape, about 6 in- 
wide ; cut lengths of clean, straight-grained pine 
I in. thick, tooth both sides, and lay in steam box 
until rendered pliable, then screw between the cauls, 
f. 3, and allow to remain for two hours ; then 
reheat the cauls occasionally, hand-screwing to- 
gether as before, thus absorbing and drying out the 
moisture caused by steaming. When quite dry, 




2. Plan of Violin Case. 




well glue the inside surfaces, and hand-screw 



Bending a Curved End. 



again between the heated cauls, and allow them 

to remain screwed up as long as possible. The small end is proceeded with 
in the same way, and straight lengths are tongued between them to com- 
plete the box, to which are then glued a curved top and bottom, and the 
whole is then levelled off and veneered. 



86 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



m 



A. B. 

i. Sections of 

Table or Tray 

Rims. 



Building up Galleries. — Various curved galleries are used on table tops, and 
are constructed as follows : — Prepare a template of suitable thickness to the inside 
of gallery, gauge off strips of knife-cut veneer, and cross veneer one length, 
which will be the inner or first layer. When dry, clean off. Pin down one end 
to the edge of template, and carefully stretch the veneer all round the shape, 
making a "butt joint," and also pinning down. If veneer pins are used, they 
are allowed to project slightly, so that the veneer can be pressed 
over them, and pins withdrawn without damaging the veneer ; 
the second layer is glued about a foot at a time, moistened on 
opposite side, and laid down with a hammer ; continue with 
strips of veneer until the thickness is obtained, as section shown 
in f. i, A, alongside. Then allow to dry, level off and tooth ; 
finally cross veneering with figured veneer. Shoot the edge, 
cross veneer, and slightly round the same when cleaning off. 

An Alternate and Cheaper Method is to first pin a veneer 

down, and then glue pieces of cross-grained softwood down to form 

a core, which is levelled down and veneered as before (see f. I, B). 

Rounded Edges. — If a rounded edge is wanted, glue thin cross-cut wood 

to rim, level off flush with both faces, and round with file and glass-paper. 

Waved Edges, f. 2, are set out and worked to shape with spokeshave, 
and then veneered. 

Circular and Elliptic Shaped Slats for barred doors are also built up by 
this method, and practically any shapes other than 
those mentioned are formed by glueing veneers 
between cauls, as illustrated in f. 3, p. 85, but 
1 -in. stuff only is used, which is cramped or hand- 
screwed together. 

Curved Doors. — The construction of curved 
framing, panelling, and doors is made rather 

difficult owing to the cross grain tending to weaken the joints. To obviate 
this difficulty, tenoning is almost entirely discarded in shaped frames, except 
where the curve is very slight and the stuff will allow an almost straight- 
grained tenon ; lapped dovetails and dowelling is therefore employed, the 
use of which is governed by the work in hand. 

Wide Rails in framing are built up 
like curved rims, or cut from solid stuff. 
The former method is preferable, and is 
stronger in rails of much curvature, short 
grained solid rails reducing the strength. 
Stuck mouldings are not advisable in 
work of this description, and rebated 
framing with a "planted" or " bolection " moulding is most effective. These 
mouldings (see f. 3), unless flat and small in section and curvature, must be 
worked from the solid, but where circumstances permit of steaming and 
bending, the wood should be bent and regulated before the mouldings are worked. 
Veneering is necessary in most of the framing, owing to the unsightliness of 
the end grain when polished. This is accomplished by levelling off the work after 




2. Rim Edge — Waved. 






I 



3. Various Panel Mouldings. 



WORKSHOP PRACTICE AND CONSTRUCTION 



87 




I. Elevation and Sectional Plan 
of a Parting Screen. 



cramping together dry, when veneering the separate pieces, and glueing the whole 

together. As this necessitates removing the cramping blocks, and re-glueing 

them, the frames are generally glued together, levelled off, and veneered (see 

chapter on " Veneering "). To gauge the rebate 

to correct depth, fix a piece of steel or plough 

iron into a " router " projecting the required dis- 
tance and router away the extra wood. The 

example shown represents the curved end of a 

parting screen, 4 ft. 6 in. high. Sectional plan 

shown in f. 1, b, alongside. The three curved 

rails would carry through in each case, dowelled 

into the stile and outside munting, marked c, 

the short muntings being dowelled between the 

rails. Cut a template of the curve, and make up 

the rails, then prepare a curved template made 

from the waste stuff, and fix a piece of hard 

wood, set to the short shoulder line upon it (see 

f. 2). Mark points on the face, representing 

both long and short shoulders, and return them on the edges with this template 

or bevel, gauge, and cut, then shoot in mitre block with shoulder plane. Mark 

position of dowels on all pieces, and bore with 
dowel bit, gauge and work rebates for mouldings, 
put together dry, and level off, then take apart, 
glue together, and veneer, &c. 

Rebating after Glueing. — If the double 
shoulder is of such proportion as to render dowel- 
ling difficult, set out with butted shoulders, cramp 
the frame together, and level off, then take apart 
and work the rebate, finishing as before. 

Curved Doors. — Although the methods de- 
scribed above are applied to curved framing and doors generally, there are 

certain instances where dovetailing is employed to advantage. This is especi- 
ally the case in doors with simple stuck mouldings 

on stiles and rails, as section in f. 3. Set out the 

shoulder lines as described for " framing," and mark 

the dovetails, cut these and also the shoulders, then 

set a dovetail in position upon the planed end grain 

of a stile, and mark with an awl, then cut with dovetail 

saw, and chop out the sockets. Extreme care must 

be taken when fitting, or a winding door will result. 

To test for squareness, measure diagonally with a 

thin slip of wood, and look across the stile lines to 

judge if the door is free from winding, regulating the joints if necessary. It 

will be seen from the section that the shoulder is not set out square with 

the tangent of curve ; this would prevent the entry of panel. 




2. Setting out the Shoulder. 




3. Oblique Rebate on 
Curved Door. 



CHAPTER VI. 

TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK. 

Extension Tables — Telescope — Tray Frame, and Dovetail Slide Dining Tables — 
Circular and Leaf Extension Tables — Elizabethan, Drawing, and French Extension 
Tables — Gate Leg and Framed Gate Tables — Flap Tables ; Revolving Tray, 
Pouch, and Flap Work Tables — Envelope, Pivoted Top, and Flap Card and 
Chess Tables — Billiard Tables, with Working Details — Circular and Elliptical 
Tables — Adjustable Bed Table — Chippendale Pie Crust and Tea Tables— Hall and 
Pier Tables — Nested Tea Tables — Washstands — Toilet Tables — Kidney Dressing 
Table — Pedestal, Elliptical, French, William and Mary, and Chippendale Writing 
Tables — Curio and Occasional Tables--Cylinder Fall Writing Table and Secretaire 
— Shaving Stands — Writing Bureau on Stand — Welsh Dressers — with details and 
drawings to scale. 

Introduction. 

The development of the table from the earliest types would be an interesting 
subject to consider if space would allow, for what is now the paper-hangers' 
" trestle and board " was once a highly prized and richly decorated form. Prob- 
ably no article of domestic use has been subject to so many changes in shape 
and make, and the following chapter contains some fifty odd applications of the 
name. The term "table part" is also applied to the upper or drawer section of 
a pedestal sideboard. 

Extension Tables. 

Various methods used for extending tables are illustrated and described 
in this chapter. The most used is undoubtedly the "telescope" method 
acted by means of keyed sliders working telescope fashion in each other. 
The principles and workshop practice involved in tables on the slider 
principle are general, and much of the description of the example illustrated 
on Plate XV. applies also to the dovetail slide and tray frame. Refer- 
ence to the plan shows the single sliders or " lopers " screwed to under- 
sides of tops and connected to the framing ; iron pins are fixed to those 
underneath (see sectional detail), and they stop against plates screwed to the 
outside sliders. Dining table clips fixed in the grooved edges of sliders form 
an effective stop for the double sliders, and also bind the pieces together (see 
also sectional view). When making the sliding part of table, well-seasoned, 
straight-grained wood should be selected, preferably teak or mahogany, the 
former wood combining good standing powers with a naturally oily surface. 



Plate XV. 




vie^. V/ITH- 
T^BLE-TOP- 
REMOVED • • 



Enlarged- det- 
ail- of- sliders- 

nra SHEWING- U5E- 
^^ OP-CLIPS- • 



£1= IRON -STOP - - 
E> = I^ON- PLATE • 
C = CROSS* R/qiL- • 







SC^LE • FOR^ELEVd- 

Tion* ^nD-PL^n • • 



i FROTJT • • 
EL&V/qTIOri 




METHOD • OF- Dow- 
ELi. mG-/qriD-KErinG; • 
EDGES- OF-LE4VES- 





VIEW- OnDER^TOP -S^HEri • EVTEnDED- 



ri^LF- IDCH- SCOLE' 



A TELESCorr. Dining Table, 



[To face page 88. 



Plate xvi. 



] FtaR.T- SECTlONflf Vtu, 

o.ucwiiNn.ui.»... ""-W' 



wT SHEWING- METHOD -OP 



2 fl Bolt |£x '/a" 



^- -BL B Tenon a"x |" x « 



Cushion 1% 



Slate bed 
I£'x6'l/ax2." 




A Billiard Table, with Details of Con- 



struction'. 



[To face p«g e ^ 



Plate XVI. 

ECTlONflL- VIEW • 
IQ- METHOD -OF • 
mrsG- R.AIU5 TO 

-t I2x /a" 
>ion2'x l"x'/a 



T 



Cushion l^g 



l 



-ATE BED 

'x6'l/ a "x£" 



Outside • 

FRflME • • 



To face page 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 89 

A template must also be prepared to length of sliders, and the top edge curved 
about f in. from end to end. All the sliders are then planed to correspond 
with the template, and when the table is complete, the curvature of bed will 
counteract the sagging of centre part. All grooves for clips, and also the 
tongues, must be worked from the curved edge. Plans show the method of 
fitting the outside rails into the knee part of legs, so that when the frame is 
closed up, there will not be open shoulders. Centre legs, mortised into the centre 
rail of bed, though not absolutely necessary in tables under 10 ft. in length, are 
certainly advisable. Patent extending dining table screws, manufactured by 
Messrs Fitter, of Birmingham, are used for closing or opening the table. 
Diagrams opposite illustrate the use of a double-action screw, which operates 
from one end only. It is, however, generally advantageous to use a screw 
operating from both ends, or, on large tables, two separate screws can be fixed. 
The type illustrated always keeps the centre leg in the middle of the table, when 
opened to any position. The plan shows the fixing of single sliders to framing, 
and sliders screwed to tops, the end rails being pocket screwed to top. The 
extra leaves are usually from 15 to 18 in. wide, and the sketches show methods 
of dowelling and keying ; the former method being the best, is effected as 
follows : — Upon completion of bed framing, all the leaves and both tops should 
be cramped up, one upon the other, when the positions of the dowels (about 
16 in. apart) are then squared across all the edges, and the stuff separated, centre 
lines for boring are gauged from the top faces and the dowels glued into one 
edge of each leaf; the dowels are best made of ebony or rosewood, and are 
rounded off with a dowel rounder (see Chapter V.). When finishing the tops, all 
the leaves are inserted and the screw tightened up, previous to carefully levelling 
down with plane, scraper, and glass-paper. The fixed rails in bed plane are dove- 
tailed up the side rails and screwed, the smaller rails are necessary to carry the 
double-action screw. Gauge pieces at ends of double sliders are to keep them the 
proper distance apart, and are glued between and screwed through ; the length 
of these pieces is from ii to 4 in. The overlap of sliders illustrated in plan 
is about 11 in., and this amount can be increased up to 18 in. with advantage. 



A Billiard Table (see Plate XVI.). 

The increasing production of billiard tables, and the reconstruction of 
earlier types to suit modern decorative requirements, has rendered this an 
important branch of work, chiefly done by cabinetmakers. There has, however, 
been a remarkable paucity of information regarding this branch, due probably to 
the very limited number of firms in the business. Although the standard sizes 
vary slightly with various firms, the construction of the framework and fixing of 
wooden cush are alike, the efficiency of the table, however, depending largely 
upon the rubber cush. These specialties are protected by patents, and used 
exclusively by their respective patentees. The bed frame illustrated has 6-in. 
square knees, and the rails are stub-tenoned into them at the corners, and bolted 
(see cross section and also front sectional view facing this page). The bolt heads 
are sunk, and a turned button or stud is glued into the holes. The bolts in end 



90 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

rails are fixed lower than the front, in order to clear the front bolts when fixing 
up (see sectional elevation). The cross rails are of 4 by 2 in. stuff, and are also 
double stab-tenoned and bolted. Hard woods are used for this framing, well 
seasoned and bone dry. Legs are fixed to the framework by dowelling, or with 
a strong screwed pin into the knee parts, similar to a piano leg. The width of 
front rails is determined by the design, but should not be less than 9 in. The 
slate bed, indicated by dotted line in plan, is 12 by 6h by 2 in. Cut away for 
the pockets as shown. Fillets are fixed underneath the slate at the edge to 
which is affixed the tablecloth. The wooden cush is built up and fixed to slate 
as shown in enlarged detail, and can be made wider to suit any special design ; 
the projection of same above slate must, however, always be if in. Ends of 
cush are bevelled at the pockets, carrying the same line as rubber. Brass 
pocket holders are used, and screwed down in cheap tables, but invisible fixings 
are general in good work ; effected by bolts attached to underside of holder 
lug. These bolts are bored through the cush, and secured with nuts under- 
neath. The pocket holders are also made to tenon into the cush ends, this 
presenting a neater appearance. 3§ in. clearance must be ensured through the 
entrance to pocket on the completed table, but the true shape of rubber cush 
at the pocket cannot be accurately shown in a scale drawing. It is rather 
flatter in form than the detail illustrated. This work forms a separate and 
distinct business in billiard table making. The brackets shown at ends of rails 
are frequently used so that the stub tenons can be made in the centre of knee 
parts. 

A Tray Frame Table (see page opposite). 

These tables are much simpler in construction than the telescope 
arrangement, and can be made to extend to almost any length, according 
to the number of trays introduced into the framing. The simplest form, 
and the one most commonly made, consists of one tray working inside the 
outer rails with dovetail key tongues. The example illustrated has two trays, 
and its construction will be understood from the isometric sketches. A 
centre leg is also introduced (as with the telescope extension) which 
supports the centre part when open. A minimum overlap of the trays 
is illustrated, and the rigidity of the table is materially increased when this 
amount is added to, thus permitting the use of longer tongues. To ensure an 
easy adjustment of the tongues the rails connecting sliders are dovetailed 
up and screwed without glueing them. The sectional view through table 
shows the inside tray made narrower, this is to permit of dovetailing the 
crossed rails to the middle sliders. The method of lining up dining table 
tops and leaves is also illustrated, f-in. stuff is used for the top, and the 
under moulding or lining is glued to it ; these pieces are cut about 3 in. 
wide, with the grain in same direction as the leaves and tops. The direction 
of grain in lining up pieces must not be across the tops, or, where shrinkage 
occurs, splits will inevitably result. The method of dowelling or keying 
up the leaves is illustrated and described in connection with the telescope 
dining table facing p. 89. 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



9 1 




92 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

A Dovetail Slide Table (see page opposite). 

The method of extension illustrated in the drawings of this type is both 
strong and economical. Plans show methods of arranging the sliders, the inner 
and outer pairs mortised and tenoned to the legs. Enlarged sectional view 
shows the width of sliders. The inside is again made narrower for the cross 
rails to dovetail into the middle pair. The general principle of extension 
is very similar to the tray frame, and by the addition of extra pairs of 
sliders and a centre cross rail to receive a leg, the table can be made to extend 
to a much greater length. It is a general practice with dining tables to fix 
castors on the legs ; these are of various patterns, ranging from an ordinary plate 
castor screwed underneath the leg to special castors with patent bearings, the 
use of the latter being desirable upon very heavy tables. Small wheels or 
friction rollers prevent loose or worn bearings which affect the stability of 
the work. Plan shows position of screw, but it should be understood that 
before setting out extension tables of any kind, the screw, or full particulars 
regarding it, must be obtained. These are made in a variety of sizes and 
actions to suit the requirements of dining table makers. Square moulded or 
" thurmed " legs are largely used in these tables, and the working processes 
involved in them are described elsewhere. Turned and carved legs are features 
of Elizabethan, Jacobean, and eighteenth century designs applied to modern 
dininer table work. 



Leaf Extension Tables (see p. 94). 

The drawings on p. 94 illustrate tables with drop leaves, which, when 
raised, are supported by sliders working under the top, providing a fairly 
spacious surface if required for dining purposes. The one illustrated is 
circular in plan, but the shape may be varied to an infinite 
£% |5/£ 1 0%. numDer °f forms. Points requiring attention in this job are 
^^^Tiotv^r^ * ne un der-railing and slides. View under top shows a bracket 
screwed underneath the top, acting as a guide for the sliders 
(see projected view). These sliders are also cut into the rails, 
and work against each other. They are made of straight-grained 
stuff clamped at each end, and levelled off flush with the rails. Section of under- 
railing is shown in sketch above, and this is halved together with mitred beads, 
and connected to the legs by mortise and tenon joints. 

The other views illustrate the further application of the above construction 
to an ordinary extension table. This table separates in the centre of frame, and 
when extended, the leaves are inserted between the fixed tops, and rest upon the 
slides. A centre leg is advisable and necessary as an extra support when the table 
is fully extended. All sliders should be made slightly round on the top edge (as 
is the case with all extending tables on the slider principle) to allow for sagging 
when the leaves are in position, and heavy weights are placed upon the table. 
This is accomplished by planing each slide to a prepared template, curved about 
j V in. in its length. Grooves are also worked from this edge to receive the 



'UT1DER,- FRAME 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



93 




94 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



95 



key, see sectional detail. If these sliders are well fitted, the fully extended 
table is curved slightly from end to end, which is sufficient in some cases to 
raise the centre leg a short distance from the floor. Owing to the separation of 
the tops at the centre of table, the supports for the top are fixed to each front, 
and each piece is grooved to take a short tenon or tongue mortised into the 
brackets, thus keeping them in position when acting with the table open. This 
one is not opened with dining table screws, owing to the leaves preventing their 
use. The sliders are stopped with the tongues. 



A Welsh Dresser (see p. 96). 

This sheet of drawings represents a typical form of Welsh dresser, embody- 
ing several characteristics of this style, such as the turning, shaping, and the 
panelled door and drawer fronts. The stand or bottom part is made in one piece, 
by tenoning the bottom between the legs, trenched 
or housed into the ends, and rebated and screwed 
into the centre partition. Fig. 1 illustrates the 
construction under the top. This stand contains 
four drawers with the fronts rebated and panelled 
out with moulding, as shown. The cupboard doors 
are similarly treated. To construct the top part, 
housed dovetailing is used to connect the shelves 
with ends and partitions, whilst the carcase top is 

lapped dovetailed into the ends. Partitions are pinned into the carcase top and 
wedged. The three sets of panels in some cases are formed on one long drawer 
front. A modern treatment for a similar dresser is shown on p. 97. 




1. View showing Bracketed 
Carcase Rails. 



A Gate Legged Table (see p. 98). 

The drawings on p. 98 show two examples of gate legged tables. They 
are made with numerous variations, which, however, are based on these types. 
The first example is an adaptation of an old Jacobean table made in oak, con- 
taining a drawer (see plan), which also shows the movement of 
the gates, which are formed by tenoning a top and bottom rail 
between the two inside legs (see elevation). The right hand leg 
fits between the table rail and the lower stretcher, with a |-in. iron 
2. pin bored through rails into this leg. The left inside leg is halved 

into the frame, and also the stretcher, as shown. A smaller 
kind, used for tea tables, made from 2 ft. 1 in. to 2 ft. 4 in. high, has a ridge 
or moulded edge round the top, called a " pie crust top " (see f. 2). In either case 
the leaves are connected to the fixed top with rule joints. When screwed 
together the complete top is temporarily clamped on the underside, which 
keeps it firm when moulding, shaping, or turning. 




96 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



97 





Front • and ■ • 
side- elevations 



/// ' 



' ,/■ 



■ifii 




Scale • for. 

VIEWS • • 



Detail- of= (W 

HANDLES 




6 Feet • 



HflMMEFtED • 
IR.ON • • 
HING-E 




DETAILS -DRAWN 
HALF- FULL- SIZE. 



Design for a Dresser Sideboard by Mr John Hooper. 



9 8 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




H 

o 

w 



< 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



99 



A Frame Gate Table (opposite). 

This table, illustrated opposite, is much simpler in construction than the 
other, though not so decorative. The plans show two frames acting as gates, 
hinged to each end, and stopped when open by two blocks glued on the under- 
side of leaves. Alternate treatment of ends, veneered and inlaid, are shown in 
the elevation, and with strapwork carving recessed about J in. from the face side. 
The centre frame is dowelled between the ends, whilst the frieze moulding is 
housed into the outside surfaces and returned on the edges. Owing to the end 
grain not affording much strength for pocket screwing, the centre top should be 
well dowelled into the framing. 



A Draw Table (see p. ioo). 

This method of increasing the top surface of a table by means of sliders is 
probably the earliest known, the first examples belonging to the Elizabethan 
period. The framing is first put together, with under-railing as shown, a wide 
centre rail is then screwed to the framing, and tops are prepared as shown in 
the elevation ; the stuff is selected from well-seasoned boards, and to ensure per- 
manent flatness, mitre clamps are mortised and tenoned to each end ; in the case 
of an especially large centre top, it is advisable to make a four-panelled flush 
framed top. When setting out this table, make the combined thickness of top 





I. Semicircular Tray Fitting. 2. 

and bearer when closed equal to the width of bearer under centre rail. If the rail 
is now cut away to receive the bearer, the centre top may be lifted slightly and 
the leaves pushed home. The method of connecting bearer to tops, and arrange- 
ment of sliders, is shown in plan. One pair of sliders has a rail dovetailed into 
their ends, thus keeping them quite parallel, and guides are fixed to rails for the 
outer pair. As previously mentioned, the centre top has to be slightly raised 
when closing the table. This is effected by tenoning wooden forks or prongs 
into the top, passing through the centre rail ; these act as keys, ensuring the top 
remaining in position. Then card table centres are screwed to the top, and are 
loosely bolted underneath the rail. Examples of an Elizabethan and also a 
Dutch "Draw" table are shown on p. 101. They were measured and drawn 
from the actual work. 

A Revolving Tray Work Table (p. 102). 

This table, made of Italian walnut inlaid with snakewood, can be also used 
as a side and occasional table ; semicircular trays are attached to panelled 



ioo MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 




Details of " Draw " Tables. 



io2 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 





TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



103 



fronts, which revolve upon pivots let into the rails. Although the space in 
the trays is rather limited, it is of sufficient size for the storage of fancy- 
work requisites. An alternate treatment of trays, fitted for stationery, &c, is 
shown in f. 1, p. 99. The turned legs are adaptations of " ring and ball " turning 
so largely used during the latter part of the seventeenth century. Both the 
veneered and constructive parts are straightforward, and do not require a lengthy 
explanation. It will be seen from the plan that the trays are attached to the 
framed fronts, and the pivoting is accomplished as illustrated in sketches. The 
pivots are fixed to the inside surfaces of rails (see f. 2, p. 99), with hole plates 
sunk into frames. They are placed in position when glueing up, and the top 
secures them, the semicircular boxes being screwed in afterwards. The diagram 
shows the frame projecting slightly beyond the ends of box, facilitating clearance ; 
a bullet catch fixed under bottom rail (position indicated in diagram) proves an 
effective stop. 



J>/lEW-OF- HOUSED 
LEO-flTO • 



An Extending Flap Table (Height 2 ft. 4 in. to 2 ft. 6 in.) (opposite). 

This is an extending table, worked upon the gate leg principle. The 
movement consists of a boxed frame, two opposite corners of which are through 
dovetailed together, with the other corners tenoned into 
the legs. Two legs on fly rails, working upon knuckle 
joints (see plan), open to angles of 90 degs., and when 
closed, shut over the dovetailed angles. Elevation shows 
the depth of box, and also length of knee part on leg, 
which, when housed (see sketch), leaves a supporting ledge. 
Both fly rails are stopped under the leaves by boring 
dowels into the flaps, and allowing them to project about 
\ in. The rigidity of the table depends entirely upon 
accurately fitted knuckle joints. When working the top, 
both rule joints should be worked and hinged together, 

clamps are then temporarily screwed on the underside to keep the tops straight 
whilst shaping, moulding, and cleaning up. This type of table is also made 
circular, elliptic, and oblong in plan. 




Work Tables (p. 104). 

The tables illustrated on p. 104 are the most typical forms in this kind of 
furniture, and judged from a utilitarian standpoint, the box or well pattern is 
distinctly the best. A drawer is provided at the bottom, and, by slightly alter- 
ing the curved opening under folding tops, a sliding tray for small articles can 
be introduced. This kind also lends itself more readily to decorative treatment, 
having the additional advantage of being made entirely of wood, and thus not de- 
manding periodical renewing of silk linings. The example shown was executed 
at the Shoreditch Technical Institute, and was made of rosewood, with inlays of 
pear and purple wood. The various views show constructive details, the main 
features of which are the sides, formed by tenoning the rails into legs, grooving 
all pieces to receive the panels. The bottom also is grooved or " housed " into the 



io4 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



io 5 



ends tenoned at front and back. This bottom is faced up with pencil cedar, and 
the interior is lined with the same material, the legs being cut away to complete 
the corners. Drawers in these tables can be made to withdraw from either side, 
and when this is desired, the bottom should be framed up with a J-in. panel and 
slotted to receive a piece screwed to drawer bottoms, utilised as a stop for the 
drawer. It will be observed that the top consists of two hinged flaps supported 
by pivoted brackets, thus necessitating the use of an underframe or top. The 
brackets are cut and fitted into the rails, and an iron pin is bored through each 
bracket into the top rail, and also into the underframe ; when this frame is 
dowelled down to the carcase, it supports the brackets when open, and also 
receives the hinged flaps for which link joint hinges are used. These give a 
level surface when the flaps are open (see chapter on " Brasswork " for description 
of this hinge). 



CONNECTION -OF • 
. UPR.IGMTS, -TO- RlM 



& 



A Pouch Work Table (opposite). 

The diagrams show various views and details of the above type, which are 
chiefly made in decorated Sheraton, Adams, and Empire style. The stand, into 

which the lower ends of uprights are tenoned, should be cut 

from a solid piece of stuff if a moulded edge is required, but 

"laminating" is best for veneered 

work. The rim is built up on the 

" segment " principle (see enlarged 

detail), with a frieze moulding glued 

on the bottom edge between the legs, 

and allowed to project about | in. in 

the inside to receive the pouch ; when 

the rim is built up, it is levelled and 

veneered, then set out to receive the 
i. uprights, stub tenoned and housed 

into the rim as shown in f. I. The 
enlarged detail shows the method of attaching the silk to form the pouch, and this 
inner rim should be turned up from a " laminated " piece of stuff. To ensure 
the solid bottom passing through opening of top, make diameter of bottom § in. 
less than opening. A fitted tray is shown in f. 2 and rests upon the rim. This 
is made by glueing several thicknesses of veneers round a circular template. The 
edge is afterwards veneered to conceal the joints. Care must be taken when 
glueing on the bottom not to alter the shape, and it is advisable to glue this 
on with the template inside the rim. 





WASHSTANDS. 

The washstand shown on p. 106 is probably the most popular type 
made ; its construction is simple, and when properly put together, should 
be a very serviceable, strong, and rigid job. The pieces forming the ends 
run across, and are either tenoned or dowelled into the legs. The back 
runs right through, either dowelled between the back legs, or framed together, 



io6 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




FROP 1T- E1_E.VATIQI> 



sect ion- 




TOP- RAH.- • 




PLAH- ABOVE- 
SMELT -AMD- 
UnDER -TQ P • • 

VIEW- 5MEWIHG' 

ccnsTR^crion • 

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I SOME TRiC • VIE^/ • SnE^/lMG • 
CO^STRUCTlOri' AT- LEFT • • 



ALTERT1ATIVE 
COrNSTRUC-TIOn- 
lf>DQORM-AMin 
ATIMG-ATID • • 
CLAMPiriG- • 




A Marble Back Washstand. 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



107 



when it is screwed into rebates formed on the inside of the legs. The fixing 
for the top rail is shown in plan, dovetailed and tenoned, whilst the drawer 
rails are tenoned into the legs. Cupboard bottoms are likewise tenoned into 
front and back legs, with the intervening portion 
screwed into rebates worked on the inside bottom 
edges of ends and divisions, form- 
ing a flush or level surface under- 
neath. The centre bottom is stub 
tenoned into legs, and screwed 
into rebates on partitions, as with 
cupboard bottoms. An isometric 
sketch is shown on p. 106 illustrat- 




P\ - LOO&E BUSH 
B - CURTAIN- R.OD 



ing the construction of one corner 




1. A Thimble with the drawer runner " housed " 

Fitting. or " trenched " into the ends, 2 * 

with a small stub tenon fitting 
into a groove worked on inside edges of drawer rails. Corresponding grooves 
are also worked on the runners to receive the dust-boards. The span rail under 
drawer is cut from the solid, and veneered in order to cover the end grain — 
(which would appear darker in colour when polished), and also to obtain a 
richer effect by using figured veneer. 
Two methods are shown of making 
the doors : the first is " mortise and 
tenon mitred " clamping, which costs 
more than the second method, i.e., 
laminating. The cocked bead in both 
cases is glued into rebates worked on 
the edges, and secured while drying, 
with clips, hand-screws, or tape bound 
firmly round the door, and left until 
quite dry. The drawer fronts should be 
executed as follows : — First veneer the 
centre part of each drawer front, and 
when dry, cut margin with gauge or 
scratch stock, then remove veneer, and 
glue. Set out the pattern with pencil 
lines, and cut with dovetail saw to 
required depth, glue lines into grooves. 
Trim level with edge of veneer, mitre 
margin line round, glue in position, 
and then lay the cross banding with 
a hammer. It will be noticed from 
the sketch that the cocked beads on 

door are equal to the thickness of hinges, which ensures a neat appear- 
ance. The top part is composed of a moulded frame with the frieze tongued 
to the top rail, the shelf when fixed concealing the joint. When fixing the 
shelf notch back at each end as shown, and screw from behind. Side brackets 




3. Detail of a Folding-up Washstand. 



io8 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



i i i 



zt=. SCAL £ 




HALF' 

PL AH -OF 'TOP 



MALF.pLAn 

urioeR-Top- 



SFCTIODAL- PLAIN- •• 
THRc'- CUPBOARD^ OF * 
CORH ER • WASHSTAHD- 



Types of Washstands. 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 109 

are secret screwed to shelf, and also screwed from the back. A moulded base 
is mortised and mitred together, forming a frame, which is dowelled or screwed 
to the brackets and back. Holes are drilled through the marble top, and the 
top part may then be firmly screwed into position from under the marble. To 
ensure the marble top finding its correct place when fitting the job up, blocks 
are fixed to the underside with plaster and glue, touching the corners of 
framing, so that it will only drop into one position. Locks are sometimes 
fitted to the drawers, but bullet or French catches are sufficient for the cupboard 
doors. For construction of curved drawer refer to chapter on " Curved Work." 
The frieze is inlaid with box lines in a pattern, executing the curved grooves 
for lines with flat gouges, or scratching with a file end round the templates 
prepared to the various curves. 

The drawings shown on opposite page illustrate several types, with 
varied arrangement in the upper part, both in design and application of 
material. The first example — in Italian walnut inlaid with rose and grey- 
wood, with a three-panelled back, the centre panel of marble — provides 
a not unpleasant effect contrasting with the side panels, and differing from 
the usual treatment of washstand backs, viz., porcelain tiles, secured with 
brass screws. Marble brackets and tops are also shown in the drawings. 
The construction of this stand introduces no features needing special 
mention. Doors are framed up with panels veneered as shown. A half 
front elevation is given, showing a different arrangement in bottom part 
with tiled top part, and a curtain attached to a brass rod. The pillars are of 
turned wood, and the rod is secured by thimble fittings illustrated in f. 1, p. 107. 
Backs of this character without side bracket supports, should have the stiles 
extra long at the bottom, forming horns that can be attached to the stand 
(see diagram, f. 2, p. 107). This constructive principle is further illustrated in the 
dressing-table with self-supporting top part on p. ill. A half elevation is also 
shown of a washstand in oak, with curtains above and also a glass frame. The 
corner stand illustrated is based upon a Sheraton example. A cupboard is 
made by tenoning the rails between the square part of legs, the bottom being 
rebated into rails and tenoned into front legs. A shelf is pocket screwed 
through the side rails, and curved doors fitted at the front. Fig. 3, p. 107, illus- 
trates a fold-up washstand used where space is limited, such as in yacht and ship 
cabins and offices (see also folding washstands in chapter on " Office Work "). 



A Kidney Dressing Table (p. m). 

Kidney-shaped dressing tables are generally made in the Louis XV. style, 
of oak and walnut, carved and gilt, or enamelled white. Triple glasses being 
a special feature of these types, the best arrangement for fixing them is to 
mortise the uprights through the glass rim, and cut the wide rim away about 
f in. deep to receive the uprights, which are then screwed into the rim. 
The exact proportion of the housing and mortise has to be carefully con- 
sidered, otherwise the glass rim will be weakened. The plan shows the best 
way of putting this together with dowelled joints ; the shaping is done after the 




no MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

segments are glued together. The rim should be cut roughly to shape, which 
permits the cutting of notches to receive cramps during glueing. When com- 
mencing to make a kidney-shaped table, a template should first be made corre- 
sponding with the line of top. The lines inside this shape, such as table rim, 
glass rim, moulding on top, &c, will all be parallel to the edge of the template, 
and when their projection has been ascertained, they may be gauged upon the 
template with a tee gauge. To construct the rim, prepare separate templates 
about i£ in. wide. Four will be required for the bottom layer, lettered A, B, c, D, 
in diagram below, with E, F, G, H, for alternate layers. Mark out segments from 
templates, spokeshave to true shape, then lay in position and fit one layer on to 
board. This is temporarily secured by glueing at intervals with a piece of stiff 
paper under the joints. The second layer is then fitted and glued down, each 

segment overlapping the joints of the previous layer, 
brickwork fashion, until the required height is obtained. 
When dry, the whole rim is levelled off, sized and 
veneered. The legs are then fitted into rim as shown 
in plan, and the stretchers tenoned into legs, halved at 
the centre to receive the upholstered footrest. When 
these are properly fitted together dry, take apart and 
cut away the rim to receive a drawer. Then dovetail 
pieces into rim for the drawer to work in (see plan), with 
a top and bottom rail set back for the drawer front. Prepare the drawer front 
from a piece of solid stuff, and put the drawer together. To obtain the sunk 
panel, rout away the centre part with a scratch stock, or the job may be done on 
a spindle machine, leaving a i-in. margin, and finished in the corners with a chisel. 
Another method is to rebate the front, and mitre a slip in the rebate formed, 
projecting above the surface of the drawer. Compo or carved moulding is then 
fixed into the angles. The diagram shows the section to which the footboard is 
made, with a rebate for upholstery. This is screwed through the stretcher from 
underneath, and is finally fixed when fitting the work up. A f-in. moulded top 
is shown with a rebated rim holding a plate glass in position. Silk is inserted 
between the top and the glass, which is all secured by screwing the rim down 
from underneath the top. For other types of dressing tables see p. 112. 

A Cylinder Writing Table (see p. 113). 

This rather intricate piece of cabinetwork includes a fall, circular in 
section, operating a sliding table part. Details of bar E are given in the chapter 
on " Mechanical Actions." The fall and slides are attached to an iron trammel 
or bar that is slotted and works along a centre. When the slider is drawn 
forward, the fall is opened, and closed when pushed home. A method of locking 
which secures the fall, slider, and drawer simultaneously, is shown in f. 1, p. 114. 
A is a spring bolt let into the partition B, when the bottom drawer lock bolt is 
out ; it raises the spring bolt into the slider, and when the drawer lock bolt is 
down, A springs back into position indicated, thus freeing the slider. The 
slotted bar is connected to both cylinder and slider, and also to iron plates sunk 
into the ends. Both ends are prepared to form grooves for the cylinder to run 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 




yjJWJJJJJJ^-i 



DETAIL- OF- 
GLASS-RIM- 
AHD • TOP • 




5ECTIQH-OF- 
UPHOLSTERED- 
FOOT- REST- 




V////////S. 




5ECTI0HAL- 
PLAM-OF- 
GLASS- FRAMES - 



ELEVATIOH AMD- PlAIT 



■ III 



DETAILS 

1" 2" 



A Kidney Dressing Table. 



ii2 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



1' 2' 3' +' si 

I I I I I - 3CALE.' FOR^ELEVAT 10 HS • 



1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i .i I 




emd-view 



FRO HT- ELEVATIOn- • • 



Types ok Dressing Tablks. 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



Ir 3 



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Mmv^;.^ "'p:i'£'^&' & 




ii 4 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



. Pl.*=«te.- on - &1-IDE.R- 



in by attaching" curved brass slips near the edge, or by glueing pieces of work 
at the edge, outside the cylinder. Then a three-sided piece is attached to the 
insides, thus making a groove for the cylinder to run in. An alternate method 
is to work grooves with a stock and cutter attached to a centre, also rebating 
the end for slider (see front view). When constructing the cylinder, it 
may either be framed together or " coopered," i.e., several strips of straight 
grained stuff are jointed to give the required curve, but for use with a slotted 
bar, the former method is preferable, owing to its better standing qualities, 

no shrinkage or warpage taking place. Interior 
fittings are illustrated. These are made quite 
separate from the main carcase, and screwed on 
to carcase ends, with packing pieces as described 
in Chapter XII. A stationery case is also illus- 
trated in elevation and plan. It is used when 
the slider contains a horsed rack writing flap, the 
construction of which will be understood from the 
end sectional view shown, the pen and ink boxes 
running underneath the stationery case. The 
complete job is formed of three parts — ( i) Bottom 
table or stand ; (2) Cylinder carcase with drawers 
above ; (3) Bookcase top part. Both ends of 
the cylinder part are " laminated," with a dove- 
tail housed horizontal division rail, and lapped 
dovetailed carcase top. Rebates are worked on the ends at back, so that when 
the carcase is dowelled to the table frame the whole back may be screwed in as 
shown in sectional view. The bookcase is secured by screwing through the 
carcase bottom. To construct the curved kneehole, a full partition is used 
between the long and short drawers, tenoned into legs and housed into ends, 
while the angles outside small drawers are clamped and rebated together, 
tenoned into legs, and grooved into partition. Brackets are mitred and tongued 
together, glued in the corners, and the front flushed off and veneered (see f. 2). 




View showing Method of Fixing 
the Kneehole Brackets. 



A Writing Table (see opposite). 



The example on p. 115, manufactured by Messrs J. S. Henry, Ltd., shows an 
unusual treatment of the writing part. A folding top is made, which, when 
opened, releases a falling front, and discloses a fitted stationery case. The front 
is supported by quadrant stays, similar to those used on bookcase " secretaires," 
and is lined for writing purposes. The construction of work such as this, where 
large legs are introduced, is generally to make the carcase separate from the 
stand. Pins are turned into the legs, see enlarged detail of leg on p. 116, and 
bored and glued into the carcase above. The underframing and feet are dealt 
with in connection with a cabinet of the same period, illustrated on p. 165. This 
constructive principle, viz., separate carcase, is again rendered necessary when 
considering the centre cupboard, and it permits the carcase bottom to be carried 
through in one length, rendering the fixing of pilasters at each side of door a com- 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



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n6 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




Cross BflNaNS- and- her- 

Tv^/O — RINGBONE- 1NL.AYIM3-ON 

THIRDS • DR*™**-^,. • 
SCALE • 



QuEEN-i^MNE • 

drop-handle 



Detail- of 

LEG-- 



One-third 
full- size ■ 



paratively easy matter. The sectional view shows the shape of the falling front, 
acting between the bracketed pilasters ; false fronts are made by veneering the 
face, and glueing on a thin continuation of the inside pilasters. The stationery 
case is of a simple arrangement, fitting into the recess formed by fixed top. 

Alternate treatments of sta- 
tionery cases are given with 
various other cabinets in Chap- 
ter VII., and these could be 
adapted to this piece of work. 
Fig. i. shows the edges of the sta- 
tionery case, faced up with ebony 
beads ; f. II., the ebony moulding 
round drawer-end frames and 
cupboard doors ; f. III., the 
veneered treatment of top, back, 
and ends ; f. IV., inlay on inside 
drawers ; and f. V., detail of a 
characteristic Queen Anne "drop 
handle or pendant," taken from 
an old cabinet, and much used 
in this period of woodwork. 

The drawings on p. 1 17 are 
of a writing table belonging to 
the late Louis XV. period, also 
called " Transitional," that is, the 
period between the Louis XV. 
and Louis XVI. styles proper. 
Details of the Louis XV. style 
are found in the general propor- 
tion and outline, ormolu mounts, 
"bombe," i.e. curved-shaped, ends 
and outline of plan ; the Louis 
XVI. feeling being quite distinct 
in the diaper tambour front and 
inlaying upon the drawer. When 
putting this piece of work to- 
gether, it will be found advan- 
tageous to have the legs cut to 
shape first, by preparing a tem- 
plate to the outline in front 
elevation, and then setting the 
shapes out on adjoining sides of 
square stuff. Both ends are 
then prepared, shaped inside as 
shown in plan, squared up, and 
dowelled between the legs, setting them back the required distance from 
the squared knee part to allow for final curvature of legs. The back, 




ffoff 




Under. 



Round -panels • 
flrc- Dre«%^E:«.e 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



117 




J 



A French Writing Table, with Tambour Front. 



n8 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



7 




Detail- COR-- 

NER.-OP • . 
FRJEZE FRAHE 



2. 



bottom, and partitions are then tenoned into the legs, setting the pieces 
back as before, and grooving into ends as shown in sectional view. Legs 
are then shaped to diagram, f. i, from which it will be seen that the section 
of the leg varies in shape as well as size. No hard and fast rule can be laid down 
for this kind of shaping, for the correct proportion and feeling necessary are only 
acquired by long experience in this work, but, in the case of carved or intricate 
shaped legs, a pine or whitewood leg is generally prepared, which serves as a 

model, and is moulded until the shaping is de- 
finitely settled. When shaped, one end is then 

inserted between the legs, and cramped to- 
gether dry, with the top edge marked out to 

shape, as shown in plan. The ends curved in 

plan are recessed into a panel, veneered and 

finished, with the addition of small mouldings 

mitred round the angles. This can be effected 

by building up the end with three thickness 

4-in. stuff glued together and band-sawn, 

recessing away the panel portion with routers 

and planes, and then veneering. This is a 

more economical method than that usually 

adopted in French furniture, viz., cutting a 

groundwork from built-up stuff, veneering the 

centre part, and then mitreing round facings 

to form the panel borders. This is rather a 

lengthy process, as all the pieces have to be 

carefully fitted over the curved ends. When 

veneering such work, curved in plan, the 

cuttings from band saw are utilised as " cauls," 

with a thin piece of cardboard between, or 

a sand bag is employed, described in chapter 

on " Veneering." Mounts for this work are 
prepared by making a pattern in boxwood or plain satin- 
wood carved to the required design, then forwarded to the 
metal worker for reproduction in metal. " Water gilding " 
is the finishing process for mounts of this period, and used 
in conjunction with fine "chasing" on the mounts, 
has a very rich effect. Notable examples of such work 
are to be seen in the Wallace Collection, and also the 
Jones Collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum, 
including the work of such famous artists in metal as 
Caffieri, Oeben, Martin Carlin, and Gouthiere. 

On p. 119 a fine example of a Chippendale double- 
fronted pedestal table is shown. The heads to the doors are 4 . 
exceptional, and novel in treatment. The plan shows the 

arrangement in pedestals, giving similar cupboard and drawer accommodation at 
each side. Drawers are introduced at each end, and with but slight structural altera- 
tion of the frieze frame, drawers could be introduced above the kneehole space. 



1. View 
showing 
Shaping 
of Leg. 





Sectional 
plan. corne.r. 
of- plinth 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



119 




View- shewing 
plan of frieze 

GROUNDWORK. • 




Jr 



\, 



Shape -of top 
and frieze • 

FRAME 




Enlarged- de 
tail- of- pilas- 
ter.- carving 



Alternate 
detail- for. _,_ 
top • • • Top 




Scale- for- eleva- 

TION- (AND- PLAN • • 



2. iter-. 



I I II I II I I c 



A "Chippendale" Writing Table. 



r 2 o MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

The sectional plan shows the method of framing up the ends, essential in such 
a heavy piece of work. The construction of the doors is also shown in this view, 
and it must here be observed that the corresponding shape on the frieze frame 
is effected by making both together in one length, which, after being veneered, 
is cut through ; the top piece is then glued on to a framed-up frieze ground- 
work, see plan showing construction of frieze. A top lining and also a frieze 
frame are next constructed, and the frieze groundwork is screwed between them. 
These frames are mortised and tenoned together, with mouldings mitred round 
the edges, the hollow corners inserted as shown in f. 2, p. 118. Sectional view 
through frieze and door is illustrated in f. 3, and it will be seen from this 

view that the door projects above the pedestal car- 
case top, and that the frieze is cut away to receive 
the frieze moulding ; a block is 
glued to the inside of frieze, see B 
in diagram, which closes or fills in 
the cavity formed by cutting away 
the frieze. Characteristic Chippen- 
dale details are also shown on 
same page ; the carvings are cut to 
outline, and glued to doors and 
pilasters before carving up. Fig. 4, 
p. 118, shows the construction of 
one corner on plinth frame, with rails tongued into the corner pieces, which have 
been worked to section in one long length. Cross rails of stout material, such as 
4-in. by 2-1'n. pine, are dovetailed between the side rails of plinths, and act as 
strengthening braces, and also provide the necessary fixing for castors. The 
" paterae " at bottom corners of the doors are turned to section designed to suit 
the carved detail, and they should be shouldered with a projecting part about \ in. 
thick and bored and glued into the groundwork. An alternate treatment to the 
carved corners is to introduce fluting and " reeding," frequently used in 
Chippendale's examples. 





2. Detail of 
Nested Tables. 



A Hall Table (see opposite). 

A simple table of the above type in Austrian and brown oak, executed at 
Shoreditch Technical Institute, is illustrated on p. 121. The table part construc- 
tion is dealt with elsewhere in this chapter, as is also the method of pinning feet 
through the lower framing. The turning is based upon the " William and Mary " 
period. A pediment back is shown, the top edge moulded, a frequent con- 
structive feature of cabinetwork, which is executed by glueing the curved part 
on to the groundwork, and the side pieces, of full width, on to the top edge. 
Fig. 1 above illustrates the constructive detail of lower framing, in which stub 
tenon joints with bevelled shoulders are used. The shaping of outside portion 
should be executed as indicated, and thus provide a necessary hold for 
cramps when glueing up. 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 




Tr^tnt View- 



Sect iph • • 




I Drawings • of • a • 

HALL- TABLE! • AND 



SCALE -OF- IMCMES 

1 1 M i i T 1 1 1 1 1 1 — 



A_TERn<=ITE 
DETAIL- OF- LEG. 



2. FEE.T-- 



■ 



A Hall Table, and Nested Tea Tables. 



122 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



Nested Tables (see p. 121). 

These tables are called " Nested " because of their arrangement, viz., forming 
a nest or fitting into each other. There are two ways of making them, the 
method shown being most effective. It will be seen in front view that the 
largest table has *a smaller one fitting into a groove in the side rails, and this 
principle is extended to the remaining two, or more if necessary. Plan shows the 
connecting rails, curved in order to fit each other, and built up for requisite strength. 
The smallest table has a shelf in addition to the rail, which adds to the general 

effect when all are in position, and also 
strengthens the smaller frame. The alternate 
construction is to form grooves by screwing 
slips on to the inside of rails, see f. 2, p. 120, 
but work executed in this manner is unsightly 
and cumbersome. 

An Extension Table (see p. 123). 

This system of extension is of French 
origin. " Draw " frames act under the top (see 
plan), and afford support to the semicircular 
side " leaves." A rule joint connection is used. 
And the underframing is constructed by 
tongued mitres at the corners, the remainder 
" halved " together, stopped dovetail joints 
being used for connecting the straight lengths 
to end rails. 

Curio Tables (see p. 124). 

An original table, manufactured by 
Messrs J. S. Henry & Co., of Old Street, 
London, is illustrated, in which a maximum 
amount of show space is obtained. End eleva- 
tion shows the glazed framing dowelled between 
the legs, a false bottom is grooved across the 
ends and back before glueing up, and forms 
a filling or soffit to the projecting front part, 
rebated into the front rails and screwed from 
underneath. The smaller type shown is rect- 
angular in shape, and does not demand a detailed explanation. Curio tables, 
shaped in plan, are also frequently made, the top made in segments, with curved 
frames fitting between the legs. When an elliptic or " kidney " shape is employed, 
a special hinge must be made. This is fixed at the centre, and is made of extra 
width ; owing to the curved rail and top, not more than one can be used, and it is 
for this reason that the hinge flaps are made longer than the ordinary type. Special 
locks are also to be obtained for such work, which is very light in construction. 




TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



123 



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French Extension Table. 



124 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



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TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



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A French Hall Table, and an Occasional Table. 



126 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

A Hall Table (see p. 125). 

This is a fine example of French sixteenth century work now in the Victoria 
and Albert Museum, displaying excellent proportion and characteristic decora- 
tion in the fretted and carved under or " span " rails. The sectional view shows 
construction with a tablet attached to the drawer front. The under-railing is 
simple, rectangular as shown in plan, and the top is mitre-clamped. A small 
"console" or bracket is attached to the centre span rail under frieze, with a 
turned "pendant" or "drop" pinned in from underneath. The original is 
executed in walnut. 



An Occasional Table (see p. 125). 

The measured drawings shown were made from the actual example in 
Bethnal Green Museum. It forms a part of an exhibit which is representative 




3 feet 



End sect- 
ional view- 




An Oak Bureau on Stand. 



of the Continental New Art style, purchased by Sir George Donaldson, who 
presented it to the nation. The exhibit generally displays excellent technique in 
execution, both in wood and metal work, and there are some fine examples of 
inlaying. On the other hand, many of the designs are quite unsuitable for the 
materials employed, and require bent wood in executing them, which, however 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



127 



carefully it may be done in furniture, always has a natural tendency to spring 
back. The example given is in good proportion, and except for the carved knee 
parts is an effective piece, with good moulded legs and top. The construction is 
effected by cutting the legs to profile, and framing up with moulded rails. The 
carving is then executed, and continued or "run off" on to the rail mouldings. 




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tllil 



Holly Stationery Case. 



An Oak Bureau (see opposite). 

The example shown, upon a stand with turned legs, illustrates the 
necessary arrangement and construction of this class of work. The stand is 

dovetailed together with the angles 
braced as shown in f. 1, and a mould- 
ing mitred round front and ends. The 
carcase ends need special mention 
here, as they are common, with but 
slight variations, to all bureaux. It 
will be seen from the sectional view, 
that the front line of end does not 
carry through, but is curved round 
the edge of fall. This is necessary to 
conceal the end grain of the 
fall, a small part of which 
would otherwise project 
beyond the carcase ends. 
Many old bureaux have 
this small part glued on, 
but this is not always satis- 
factory, and to ensure the 
necessary strength the ends should be cut from the solid. Fig. 2 
illustrates a stationery case suitable for the interior. Other 
examples are shown as they occur in various pieces of work in 
other parts of the book. A general rule in fitting stationery cases 
is to make the carcase slightly smaller at the back, and about f in. 
shorter than the space between ends. A bead is then glued at 
each end of case to fill the intervening spaces. A detailed de- 
scription of the supporting "sliders" or "lopers" is given in the 
next chapter, in connection with an oak bureau bookcase. 

A Chippendale Silver Table (see p. 128). 



View show- 
ing Column 
glued inside 
the Angle. 



This type of table is, as the name implies, intended for the 
display of silver or curios. The illustration has been measured 
and drawn from an original example. The height to table top 
is 28 in., and the width is 21 in. A turned column (see f. 3) is 
fixed inside the fretwork angles ; diagonal stretchers assist to keep the table 
rigid. The constructive features of this table do not require any special 
comment, and the arrangement of leg and rim or gallery will be apparent 



128 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




Chippendale Silver Table ; Sheraton Pier Table. 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 129 

from the enlarged details. When preparing the fretwork, four pieces can be 
cut together by glueing paper between each piece, and separating after the 
frets have been polished. The angles should be glued together, and the turned 
column glued in position before the rail mortises are cut ; barefaced tenons are 
used as the rails are very thin. 



A Sheraton Pier Table (see opposite). 

Pier tables were so called because of their original use in supporting a wall 
or pier glass, but changing fashion has displaced "pier" glasses, and "side" 
table is now the more appropriate and accepted term. The tops of these tables 
veneered with " curl " veneer, have a very rich effect, and it should be noted that 
the carved laurel and paterae on knee part of leg were practically the only 
exceptions to Sheraton's use of inlay for decoration. The top should be prepared 
first, and rim, shelf, and leg lines set out upon it ; templates can then be made 
for rim and shelf; both front rails are forked into the rim. This is glued up in 
segments and veneered. The diagram shows construction at back corner, rim 
dovetailed into leg, and straight rail tenoned with diminished haunch ; pocket 
screwing is shown for fixing the top, but one and a half screws sunk into the 
rim have a very neat appearance. 



Console Tables. 

This form of table was made by all the great designers in the late 
eighteenth century period, although Chippendale appears to have been the 
most prolific producer. Its use was practically identical to a "pier table," 
viz., supporting a wall glass, clock, and urn candelabra or vases. The name 
originated from the form of bracket called a " console," which was used in 
supporting the top, although this term appears somewhat perverted when 
regarding some of Chippendale's carved extravagancies. The console table 
of the Adams period is very severe in outline, the legs consisting of a modified 
" console " shape, with carving of classic origin. Marble tops were also intro- 
duced in these tables, and it is probably for this reason that Adam's tables of 
this type are referred to as commode tables. 



Card Tables (see p. 130). 

A French pattern of card table, based upon a Louis XV. design, is shown on 
p. 130 ; the plan shows the side rails attached to front legs, and back rail dove- 
tailed into side rails in box form. Fly legs and rails are used in these tables, 
with a finger joint connection (see enlarged detail). The back legs are fixed to 
the fly rails, and the centre piece between fly rails is screwed to the framing. 
To open the table the back legs are drawn out, and the top folded over. Curved 
rails, such as are illustrated, require careful treatment in executing them. 
They are usually cut from solid stuff, with a corner glued in, as shown 

9 



i 3 o MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



X 3 X 



in f. i, in order to prevent the short grain breaking away which would almost 
certainly occur if this provision was not made. The diagram also shows the 
method of connection, being slip dovetailed into the knees. Although dowelling 
is sometimes employed, it is not recommended. This method of extension can 
also be applied to semicircular card tables, both types used when closed up 
as pier or side tables, and placed against the wall. The plan of top closed 
shows an effective veneered treatment. The centre part is of curl veneers, 
which are feathered up as shown, radiating to a centre, with border cross- 
banded. An alternate treatment suitable for a Sheraton table top is indicated 
on this page, f. 2. 



A Pivoted Top Table (see opposite). 

This type of card table, from the simplicity of its construction and action, 
easily ranks first. The plan shows the framing and line of top, open and closed. 
There are various systems for determining the true position of pivot, the one 
illustrated being the simplest. Plan of framing must be set out full size, then 



VlE.^- &HEW - 
ING- CONNEC- 
TION OF- R«IL 
TO L.6G- • 





Decorative Treatment of a Semicircular Top. 



draw a centre line, divide this centre line into two equal parts, and erect a square 
upon one half as shown, then draw the diagonals, the intersection of which is the 
true position for centre of pivot. A cross rail is also necessary with this type, 
the pivot pin passing through is secured with nut as shown in sectional view. A 
receptacle for cards, &c, is provided by grooving a bottom board into the frame, 
with a filling-in rail tongued to one side of cross rail. The " cabriole " frame is 
executed by tenoning rails into knee parts of legs. Curved rails between legs 
are also glued to rails, and stub tenoned into legs. Cabriole legs are cut to 
square section first, then rounded with spokeshaves and files before glass- 
papering. " Claw and ball " feet are illustrated, the origin of which can be 
distinctly traced to the Chinese, probably suggested by animal anatomy. They 
should be carved up before the final finishing of leg is proceeded with. The 
shaded part in plan indicates a narrow lipping of cross-banded veneer with cloth 
centre part. Lippings are sometimes placed on the outside edges only, so that 
only one piece of cloth is required. This, however, generally proves unsatis- 
factory at the joint. 



i32 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



Card Tables (see next page). 

The first illustrations represent an uncommon method of extension in card 
tables, first introduced by Chippendale. The leg is composed of two pieces forming 
an angle, rebated together, and completed by the addition of a foot. These legs 
were frequently " pierced " or " fretted," also " recessed," as shown in example on 
this page. The plans indicate the extension principle, open and closed, with hinged 
connections ; a groove is worked on the inside of rails, so that when the table 

is open, the board or tray, shown in 



plan shaded, can be drawn along, 
thus preventing the rails from clos- 
ing up, and ensuring a rigid frame. 
The tops are hinged together, and 
should be framed up, with a lip- 
ping inside to receive the card table 
cloth. Various hinges and their 
uses on folding tops are illustrated 
in the chapter on " Brasswork." 



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l>Pt».Ua^^.JpC33.G3S^0pC3r:3.ta!C3^9:c!<»ja.eS!!SIQ(Se)B( 




An Envelope Card Table 

(see opposite). 

This is a most compact and 
useful type, and is so termed be- 
cause of the resemblance of folding 
flaps to an envelope. The plan 
under top shows the framing, and 
also a centre cross rail to receive 
the card table centre ; a drawer 
is also introduced into the fram- 
ing. Part plan shows the flaps 
closed, the construction of which 
must prevent the possibility of 
warping, best effected by fram- 
ing up each flap with tongued 
joints. When the top is rotated 
slightly, a spring made of flexible 
oak (as shown in diagram) comes 
into action, the button pressing 
against the rail, causing the dowel 
to push up one flap. This is then raised, and the top rotated to its full extent, 
when the spring returns to its original position, see dotted line in plan. A stop 
block is also shown, which prevents the top rotating more than the required 
amount. A view indicates the top open, the flaps resting on the framework ; 
brackets are glued into the corners, and then lined with baize. An alternate 
decorative treatment in the Adam style is shown on this page. 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



i33 




i 3 4 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



Shaving Stands (see next page). 

Shavino- stands are made in a variety of forms, of which the three examples 
illustrated are the best. The height of these stands to the table part is fixed 
definitely, viz., 3 ft. 6 in. for the swing glass type, but where an extension 
movement in pillar form is used, this rule is not binding. The elevations have 

the ends dowelled into legs, with the top and 
bottom tenoned into the legs, and housed 
into ends. Brackets are then dowelled on 
with a f-in. rod, fitting loosely between them. 
These act as a towel bar, with shelves above 
them as shown. 




A Pillar Shaving Stand. 

This form of construction is applied to 
several kinds of tables, of which we may 
mention two and three tier tea tables, cake 
stands, and circular dumb waiters. The con- 
structive principles involved are simple, viz., 
the insertion of circular shelves between turned 
portions of the pillar. This principle is further 
illustrated in the connection of top pillar to 
the standard, and elaborated according to 
requirements ; a collar or flange should be 
turned underneath the shelves, thus permitting 
of a light appearance on the circular rims. 
Various movements are attached to shaving 
stands in order to permit of tilting or turning 
the mirror. These are illustrated on this page, 
and an enlarged detail shows sectional views 
of the column, to which the movement is 
attached. The silvered mirrors illustrated 
are without bevels, and where these are 
introduced, the mirrors must be carefully 
blocked in the rebate so that the margin 
shows equally at the front. The quickest 
method is to cut small wedge-shaped blocks, 
and these are placed in the space between glass and frame, secured by lightly 
glueing and fixing with a panel pin. Rebates should be lampblacked, or an 
unsightly reflection will show on the glass. In addition to blacking the rebate 
the glass edge is also darkened. 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



i35 




136 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 





An Elliptical Table (see opposite). 

A Louis XVI. elliptical table is shown on next page, and the method of 
building up the rim is described in the chapter on " Workshop Practice." This 
rim is veneered and inlaid with brass lines, or recessed as in f. i, forming panels 
veneered with amboyna or thuya wood, with a brass-cased moulding mitred round 
the angles, see diagram. The top should be flush and framed up. The legs are 
turned and inlaid with brass flutes, see f. 2, and the circular mounts under knee 

part of legs fit as shown in f. 3, 
placed in position and screwed 
before shoes are put on. When 
the top is prepared and rebated 
to section shown it should be for- 
warded to the metalworker, who 
makes the rim as indicated in 
f. 4. Small metal blocks are 
inserted at intervals underneath, 
brazed to the rim, and " tapped " 
to receive set screws. The rim 
is then fixed by screwing from 
underneath through pockets cut 
under top. Brass shoes, shown in 
f. 2, are a feature of work in this 
period embracing many varia- 
tions. With the example shown, 
the leg is turned away to receive 
the shoe, which is then screwed 
into the leg from underneath. 

A Circular Table 

(see opposite). 

This drawing-room table, 
made of satinwood, is very simi- 
lar in construction to the above 
kind, but there is no necessity 
for the framed top, " laminating," 
or even a well-seasoned solid top, 
veneered both sides, stands well, 
secured to the rim by "pocket screwing" or buttoning (see "Joints and their 
Application "). Fig. 5 shows a detail of the stretcher and leg mortised and tenoned 
together. The inlaid lines round leg are bent round an iron bar, to obtain the 
requisite curvature, and the stretchers are screwed to the circular shell, or they 
may be made as diagonal rails, halved at the centre. When inlaying the turned 
portion under knee, a template must be prepared to fit the leg between the 
mouldings, and shaped to coincide with the inlay line. The end of a file is 




5. Method of attaching 
Stretchers to Legs. 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



i37 




w 

DO 



6 

Q 



w 



i 3 S MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

used as a cutter, worked against the template edge until the desired depth is 
obtained to receive the line. 



A Chess Table (sec opposite). 

Chess or draught tables, of which the measured drawing shown is an 
example, only differ from an ordinary occasional table in the arrangement 
of the top. The illustration shows a reversible top, which, when not in use, 
is reversed and forms an occasional table. Sectional view shows the centre 
top working upon brass pins fixed on each edge, sliding in brass-lined grooves. 
Constructional detail of top rails shows the necessary mortise and tenon and 
dovetail joints, the centre part cut away to render the box enclosure more 
accessible. These rails are lined with baize when fitting up the work, to prevent 
scratching the top. A sketch illustrates the construction of bottom framing, 
the divisions are clamped at front and back, mortised and tenoned as shown, 
and the panels are bareface tongued into the rails — see also section. The 
materials used in this table are Italian walnut and rosewood, and it was 
designed and made at the Shoreditch Technical Institute. 



A Bed Table (see opposite). 

The drawing shows a type of invalid table adjustable to desired height, and 
with tilting top. Sectional views show the box pillar tenoned into a T-shaped 
stand, with an inside pillar notched as shown in small sketch. This also illus- 
trates the method of fixing the top plate B. The height is adjusted by raising 
the pillar, when the plate automatically descends, and prevents further insertion 
of the notched pillar. A partial side view shows detail of quadrant, revolving 
round centre C, bolted as shown in section. When the top is tilted to any 
desired angle, it is securely fixed by tightening the butterfly nut attached to 
bolt. The pierced brass bracket under top is to ensure rigidity, and is attached 
to quadrant, and also to a T-shaped brass plate fixed on underside of top ; 
this bracket distributes the weight of top on to the pillar and stand. 



A Pillar "Pie Crust" Table (see opposite). 

Details of a Chippendale pillar table are also given on next page. The 
claw feet are dovetailed into the pillar, and the curved top is executed by cutting 
to shape, then moulding the rim and clearing away the centre part with planes 
and router. When a deep-centred lathe is available, the better method is to 
turn away the centre part, finishing the moulding with scratch stock and cutter. 
Oval tops of a similar character can also be worked upon a lathe, necessitating 
the use of a special fitting, viz., a chuck, based upon the " trammel " or " two- 
centred " principle. 



TABLES AND FRAMED-UP WORK 



1 39 




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CHAPTER VII. 

CARCASE WORK. 

Chest of Drawers, General Proportions and Construction — Bookcases, Dwarf, Glazed 
Doors, and Cupboard Carcase — Inlaid and Barred Door Cases — Oak Bureau 
Bookcase — Sideboards — Pedestal, Leg, and Carcase — Curved and Straight Fronts — 
Adam and Georgian Types — Dresser Sideboard — Wardrobes — Gent's Hanging, 
and Wing Carcases — Elliptical Pedestal Writing Table — Queen Anne Flap Cabinet 
— Satinwood China Cabinet — Secretaire Writing Cabinet and Bookcase — Dressing 
Chest — Music Cabinet — Scale Drawing and Sheet of Details of Flemish Cabinet — 
Tall-boy Chest — Dutch China Cabinet — Full Details of Construction, Interior 
Fittings, Cases, Trays, Cellarets, Shelf Supports, Glass Backs, &c. 

The term "carcase" is generally applied to the "case" or "cupboard" part 
between the plinth and cornice. There may be a top and a bottom carcase, as 
in a bookcase, or a "middle" and right and left "wing," as in a wardrobe, all 
of which have been built up from the old chest. Sometimes a carcase may be 
fitted to a framed-up stand with legs, or may hang on the wall, but the title of 
this chapter applies the term in a general way to enclosed furniture. 



A Chest of Drawers (see next page). 

The illustration on next page shows the general proportions and dimensions 
of this article of furniture, with constructive principles general in carcase work. 
The ends can be framed up or used solid as shown. Division rails between 
drawers are stub tenoned or housed into the ends (see also chapter on "Joints 
and their Application "). Carcase rails at top should be 3 in. wide, with brackets 
glued at each end for dovetailing, thus economising material without losing 
strength. These rails are set back behind the drawer fronts (see section) ; a 
useful detail when a top rail under a thick moulded top would appear heavy. 
This detail is repeated at bottom. The bottom stand is a constantly recurring 
feature in carcase work, and is constructed by through dovetailing a ground 
frame of £-in. stuff. A length of moulding worked to the section shown is then 
mitred round three sides of the frame, and is cut to elevation when thoroughly 
dry. Sectional view shows the dust-boards grooved into the rails, with a 
corresponding rail at the back, forming a complete dust-board frame under 
the drawers. This is the better method, although the dust-board is frequently 
slid in between the runners after glueing up the job, and completed by the 



CARCASE WORK 



141 



addition of a panelled back, or as described in " Workshop Practice and 
Construction." Refer also to that chapter for processes connected with manu- 
facture of carcases and drawer-making. The drawers in this example are made 
and flushed off and faced up before mitreing and glueing the mouldings. 
A raised tablet at centre is introduced, projecting | in. above the ground- 
work facings. 




\xw«to rmrmnTrTi 



A Chest of Drawers with Shaped Plinths. 



Bookcases (see next page). 

The example on next page is a typical bookcase regarding general pro- 
portions, although the arrangement of doors, &c, occasionally vary, such as, 
for instance, open glazed or barred doors in the bottom part, and a narrow frieze 
in place of the drawer. The depth of book space, i.e., the distance between 
inside of door and back, should never be less than 10 in., and this distance is 
frequently increased to suit special requirements. There are four methods 
employed to support the adjustable shelves, one of which is illustrated on 



p. 143. Holes are bored 



in. 



deep at intervals of \\ in. inside both 



142 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




CARCASE WORK 



M3 



ends, and turned wooden studs (see f. I.) are inserted to support the shelves. 
To ensure accurate spacing for these holes, set out the distances upon a slip 
of wood, gauge a centre line, and bore holes with a |-in. dowel bit (see f. II.). 
Glue a stop at each end, so that the slip may be placed on the carcase end and 
secured with a small hand-screw, then bore through the holes. A stop is fixed 
to the dowel bit, so that all are bored equal depth. To prevent the shelves 
slipping forward, the)' can be hand-screwed together, and bored with a bit, and 
when separated semicircular cavities are left which drop over the head of stud 
(see f. III.). Another method of supporting shelves is with brass studs (see f. IV.) ; 
T \-in. holes are made in the ends as before, and the underside of shelf is bored 
to fit the circular head with a centre bit ; when the shelf is in position, the under- 
side is quite flush. A third method, used only in conjunction with a pilastered 
carcase, is to fix saw-tooth racks on to the ends, and insert small cleats or 
fillets to receive the shelves where required (see f. v.). Tonk's patent fitting for 




adjustable shelves consists of strips of £-in. iron with rectangular holes cut at 
intervals to receive a small spiked clip. The ends are grooved to receive these 
irons with a special plane, and the irons are inserted and screwed down flush 
(see f. VI.). To insert the clip, the small projection is first placed in the hole, 
and the clip is then brought down square with the irons, a small spike serving to 
prevent the shelf moving forward when in position. The construction of top 
doors curved on the front only in plan, will be understood from the diagrams. A 
dust bead is inserted into hanging stiles, which renders the case almost dustproof. 



An Inlaid Bookcase (see p. 145). 

The design shows an effective treatment executed at the Shoreditch 
Technical Institute. The panels demand an executive process similar 
to the "diaper" patternwork of the Louis XVI. period. The chequered 



i 4 4 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



SflTirtwooo S 
RosewoooV™ 




Cutting Veneers for Diapers. 



diamonds are prepared first by cutting strips of rosewood and satinwood 
veneer to required width. These are then glued down on to paper, and 
when dry one end is cut obliquely (see A A in f. I. below). A cutting gauge 
is set from this edge and a cut made on either side of the veneer : this 
marks three diamond shapes in one length with rosewood outside. Half the 
number of those prepared are required with satinwood outside, and these are pro- 
ceeded with as above. The lines surrounding the chequered diamonds arc next 

dealt with ; veneer is glued on paper, as indicated 
in f. II., the edge shot, and pieces gauged off £ in. 
wide. Set out the panel on paper, and commence 
fitting up the surface from one corner, glue down a 
mahogany piece first, and then glue down a piece 
of line. Follow this up by glueing down the 
chequer pattern, then the line, and next the 
mahogany. This process is continued until the 
whole surface is glued on to stiff paper, which 
when dry is transferred to the panel groundwork and 
veneered with cauls in the usual way. After the 
surface has been cleaned off with the toothing plane, the small ebony diamonds 
are cut in with a chisel. It is advantageous to use stiff brown paper for this 
process, damped and stretched on to a clamped board, described in the chapter on 
" Drawing," &c. The inlaid cornice frieze also introduces processes not dealt with 
elsewhere. " Curl " mahogany and rosewood are the materials used, 
and the lancet-shaped pieces are cut by pinning six or eight thick- 
nesses of veneer between two thin pieces of hard wood, taking care 
that the centre line of each curl is directly under the centre line of the 
lancet which has previously been drawn on the thin wood. Then cut 
with a fine bow or fret, and finish carefully to shape with files. Care- 
fully glue the pieces of veneer on to paper, butting each edge against 
a straightedge to ensure accuracy, and then cut the pointed pieces in 
a similar fashion, testing them carefully between the other veneers 
before separating them. These pieces are then glued down, and 
when dry are ready for veneering. The inlaid mouldings are exe- 
cuted by veneering the edge surfaces, and inlaying the corner lines, 
cutting in the squares with a chisel. Diamond and square shapes 
are frequently introduced into barred doors, and these are executed in a manner 
similar to the small six-sided panels in this example. Prepare a piece of £-in. 
whitewood to the inside line of slab, and cut the |-in. slab round this piece, 
mitreing the corners. Temporarily pin the pieces to template, and complete 
the joint by making dovetail saw cuts at the angles, into which veneers 
are glued, forming a dovetail key (see f. III.). The straight bars are then 
V-jointed, and strengthened with strips of linen glued in the angles. 

The satinwood diamonds should be toned down in the polishing to prevent 
too sharp a contrast with the rosewood and the mahogany should be kept to its 
natural colour. 




Fig. hi. 



CARCASE WORK 




Elevations 
to- one • • 

inch scale 



Inlaid Bookcase. Designed and Made at the Shoreditch 
Technical Institute. 



146 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




LZ2 



L_l 



A Bureau Bookcase. 



CARCASE WORK 



i47 



An Oak Bureau Bookcase (see opposite). 

Good general proportions are represented in this example, which was manu- 
factured by Messrs J. S. Henry & Co. The height of bureau fall varies from 29 
to 30 in. from ground line when horizontal, the same as for writing 
tables. The bureau carcase is made quite separate from the 
bookcase, with slides or lopers to support the fall ; these draw 
out about 13 in., and are stopped by boring f-in. holes 16 in. 
from the front edge to receive a short dowel inserted when 
the loper is run in through the drawer opening ; this dowel 
stops against the edge of the division when the loper is drawn 
forward, and prevents it being entirely withdrawn. A slip of 
billiard table cloth is glued to the top edges of lopers, com- 
mencing ^ in. from front edge, to prevent marking the face 
of fall when horizontal. The sectional view shows a |-in. groove 
worked underneath the shelves, this is to receive bookcase 
leathers, which are held in position by glueing a wedge-shaped 
slip in the groove behind the leather strip. An alternate method 
of supporting the shelves is shown. Grooves are formed in the 
ends and an L- shaped stud is inserted (see sketch), which leaves Lu & Shelf Support, 
the lug projecting to support the shelves. Shelves in bottom 
carcases are in most cases supported by either of the methods previously 
described, or fillets may be used, screwed to the carcase ends. 




A Dwarf Bookcase (see next page). 

A part plan of the plinth frame belonging to this piece indicates the con- 
struction ; the mitres being tongued and blocked, beads are inserted between the 
wing and centre carcases, which facilitate fitting up and allow the door to clear 
the end. The construction of the carcase corner is also shown glued up and 
rebated right through, and filling pieces are glued in to fit the column, then 
levelled previous to veneering the end and also the front edge. Quarter columns 
are worked by planing up four squares of stuff and glueing them together with 
paper between the joints ; after the turning and reeding are completed, the joints 
are forced apart with a knife, toothed to remove paper and glue, and each piece 
is fitted into the angles provided for them. The decoration of this frieze consists 
of a pattern recessed | in. from face side called " recessing," but this decoration 
is frequently accomplished by glueing fretted patterns into the groundwork, 
although not so satisfactory. To glue the frets, prepare a board and lightly 
cover with thin glue, place the fret upon a heated caul, and transfer the toothed 
surface when warm to the glued board, well press all parts down, when suffi- 
cient glue will adhere to the surface ; then lift off and place in position and 



148 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



Z. 


p 

V 
U 

CO 



z 

id 

_i 




CARCASE WORK 149 

screw tightly down with a flat piece of wood and hand-screws. If the glueing 
has been carefully done, there will only be sufficient glue upon the fret to secure 
it, without any spare glue oozing out when hand-screwed. To construct a 
wing carcase door, prepare eight L-shaped bars dovetailed together from y^-in. 
stuff, and three square forms also dovetailed together ; mortise the L-shapes into 
the frame first, and then V cut straight lengths across the door between the 
points ; now place a straightedge across the rails to mark the position of vertical 
slats on the cross pieces, these are halved together where they cross, and glued 
up ; when dry, lay the three squares into bars and carefully mark position with a 
knife, then cut through and finish the V joints with a chisel. The squares should 
then fit exactly in position. Glue together, and strengthen all joints by glueing 
a strip of thin linen into all the angles. This method of procedure ensures 
accurate fitting, and the short length will follow through in straight lines. 
Building up curved slats is described in " curved work " section of the chapter 
on " Workshop Practice and Construction." 



A Georgian Sideboard (next page). 

The front elevation on p. 1 50 is drawn with a part finished, the other portion 
a sectional view, showing how the various parts are made and fitted together. 
It is reproduced by permission of Messrs J. S. Henry & Co. The bottom 
carcases are used for cellaret and cupboards, but if required a large carcase 
could be constructed having the same appearance, blocked and screwed into 
position on frieze and stand. The " claw and ball " feet are then tenoned into 
the base. False ends are necessary if a cellaret drawer is required in the 
pedestal, in order to allow free passage of the drawer past the edge of door. In 
making the frieze frame, the groundwork is set back to allow of the moulding 
being mitred round. This moulding is worked to within about 5 in. of each 
mitre, the high part left is for carved corners. The sideboard top part is framed 
together, and dowelled as shown in the separate sections. Both hoods above the 
columns are mitred and tongued at the corners, and a block is glued in for 
turning the fluted coves. These hoods are fixed over the back as shown in 
sectional view in B B. A curved shelf is dovetailed between, and mouldings 
are glued round the hoods mitreing into the moulded edge of shelf at the inside 
front corners. A turned ring or circle forms the convex mirror frame, which is 
scribed over the back framing, and is also cut away to form a rebate. The circle 
is glued and screwed, the carving pieces and key piece at head being scribed into 
position before they are carved. Pins are turned at both ends of pillars, and 
glued into the hoods and bases. Various cellaret fittings are described in connec- 
tion with an Adam sideboard in this chapter, either of which could be substituted 
for the more ordinary lead-lined drawer illustrated in the sectional view, but this 
is most satisfactory, and accommodates more bottles than either of the methods 
previously described. The left-hand pedestal is usually fitted with a shelf only, 
but two or three shallow trays at the top, fitted for small articles of plate or 
cutlery, and cupboard space underneath them, is an excellent arrangement. 



150 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



3^ZZ2ZZZ. . 



*mm$ 




CARCASE WORK 



151 



A Sideboard (see next page). 

Much simpler work is illustrated in these drawings, the whole of the bottom 
part being in one piece. The view with top removed shows dovetailing of top 
drawer rail into the divisions, which runs right through and acts as a division 
between the centre cupboards; the ends are tongued into the legs, and the curved 
frieze rails over doors are slip dovetailed down into legs. The method of 
putting this piece of furniture together is as follows : — Tenon the divisions into 
bottom, tongue and dowel the divisions into the front legs, slip dovetail the 
bottom drawer rail in position and dovetail down the top rail. Both ends of 
carcase bottom are tenoned into the legs as shown in sectional view through 
bottom. The curved portion of base moulding is worked upon the solid, and 
all returns to breaks are mitred round, glued into rebate in ends, and set back 
at the front, housing where they cross the ends. Trays are fitted into the left- 
hand cupboard space, and the other is fitted with a cellaret drawer, lead lined, 
having divisions ; both cupboards, enclosed by circular doors, are fitted with 
a centre shelf. The sectional view shows construction of top part, the frieze 
rail being veneered to show the grain carrying right through. 



An Adam Sideboard (p. 153). 

This type of sideboard is made in the Adam, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton 
styles ; proportions and outline are similar, the decoration varying according 
to style. Both pedestals are made 
separate from the centre table part, 
and connected by screwing. The 
construction of pedestals and the 
arrangement of cellaret drawers are 
almost identical in the different 
styles, the original types containing 
plate racks and a spirit lamp for 
warming them, but these are not 
introduced in modern work. A 
" Tambour " front is frequently used 
to enclose the space under the long 
drawer, then used as a cupboard, 
and the square drawers are fitted 
with sliding trays for cutlery (see 
sketch). The cellaret drawer, in- 
side the pedestal, is oblong in 
plan, divided up for bottles and 
lead lined. This is an excellent 
arrangement, as it economises space, 




Tray Fittings in Inside Drawer. 



152 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




w 









ELEV/qTion- 




SECTlOrWL- VIE\tf 
TMR2, • BOTTOM 
CUPBOAR D ; 



SECTiOHflL- PLflh • 
THR2,- TOP-CUP- 
BOflPD, • 



SECTION • TrlRg-y 
FRIEZE- - ■ 



k a nlnl ii | . 



1' 2'. 



4-' 5' 



& 



SCALE- 




TOP- RE I MOVED 



SECT IOn- TTiR^' 
BOTTOM • • ■ 



\ Mahogany Leg Sideboard. 



Plate XVII. 




Mahogany Sideboard. 
{Designed and made at the L.C.C. Shoreditch Technical Institute) 



[To face page 152. 



Plate XVIII. 




Painted Sideboard By Mr Ambrose Heal. {Heal 6° Son Ltd.) 




Sideboard, Painted. {Designed by P. A. Wells {Oetzmann & Co.).) 



CARCASE WORK 



153 




iS4 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

but the alternate fittings shown in f. II. and III. below and fixed to pivoted doors 
are also a feature of these sideboards. The sectional plan shows connection 

between centre part and pedestal, with false end 
dovetailed into carcase bottom and rails, and set 
back behind the pedestal pilaster with the drawer 
front overlapping. The half plan above top shows 
the joint line of tops, dowelled up dry, with the 
moulding worked on 
sides and front and 
run off at the back. 
Shaped tops of pedes- 
tals are executed as 
follows : — Rails are 
dovetailed into pilas- 
ters from back to 
front, with a rail stub tenoned between them at the back ; these form a ground- 
work into which moulded pieces 3 in. wide are mitred round to coincide with 
the centre top. The built-up moulded hood is then glued in position, and the 
curved piece mitred, scribed, and glued. The part under this curved moulding 
is then cut away, and levelled off flush to receive the door. Doors are made 
from solid stuff, and clamped as shown in section, or laminated. The carving is 
cut to outline first, glued to the door, and finished in position. 




Quadrant" Cellaret Fitting. 




Semicircular Cellaret. 



Wardrobes. 

There are many types of wardrobes, consisting of one, two, and three carcases, 
which are termed " Hanging," " Gentlemen's," and " Winged " wardrobes, accord- 
ing to their form and interior arrangement. The example shown on p. 155 is a 
" break-front winged wardrobe," and consists of a centre carcase containing four 
drawers and five sliding trays enclosed by doors. Both wing carcases are in 
this case fitted with a bottom drawer, intended to receive hats, &c, or an 
enclosure may be substituted, fitted with a hinged lid. Rails are screwed to the 
carcases about 9 to 12 in. from the top, to which the brass hanging pegs are 
screwed, these peg rails also supporting a shelf; but where the height of a 
wardrobe is insufficient for both drawer and shelf, the peg rail is fixed close to 
the carcase top, and additional swivel hooks are also screwed underneath the 
top. Half plan of plinth frame shows its construction, with moulding mitred 
round ; both cross rails and the back are made wider to allow for this extra 
thickness, whilst the cornice frame is mitred at the front corners, with lap 
dovetailed back rail ; a moulded top is screwed to this cornice frame, and 
brackets are dowelled into position. Arrangement of carcases will be under- 
stood from the diagram, the division between the drawers and trays being 
carried through full width. Trays are supported by two methods ; the neatest 
consists of grooving the tray side, and screwing hardwood slips against the ends ; 
the second method is to screw bearers of f-in. stuff to the ends and run the 



CARCASE WORK 



i55 



UJUBf'LsJI '™!\ 



SKETCH «OF- 

• -TRfiJ 

INCHES- • 




VIEW - - • ^iriD 

HflLF«5ECT- 
lOn^L-'VlEX^- 



EnL*qR^ED- Detail- • 

T(?rtV' 5IDE- /^MD'SUP' 



3' 



^r 



■ I I I I I I td=fa 



SCflLfZ' 



V 




An Inlaid Wardrobe. 



156 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

trays between them. It is expeditious in putting up the carcases to glue a 
strip of Tfi-in. stuff with beaded edge against the centre carcase ends ; this 
simplifies fitting the carcases together, and also prevents the edge of the door 
rubbing against the end. To fit the carcases up, set the plinth true upon a 
level floor, place carcases in position, hand-screwing together where necessary, 
testing and measuring pro- 
jections, &c, then screw the 
ends together, and also screw 
down to the plinth ; the cor- 
nice frame is also set in posi- 
tion, and screwed through the 
carcase tops. Now prepare 
two dozen 4-in. whitewood 




i. A Rebated Astragal 
Joint. 





Methods of Building up Shaped Door Heads. 



blocks about 3 in. square, and glue and screw them to the carcases only in the 
angles of plinth and cornice. It will be necessary to unscrew the dust-board 
from the cornice to effect this. These blocks are shown in the front sectional 
view, and ensure the carcases finding their correct position when fitting up again. 
Both small doors are glued up in three thicknesses, the centre piece crosswise, 
with an astragal moulding, as in f. 1 above. Figs. II. and III. show different ways 
of constructing the curved door heads, i.e., " mitred and tongued " and " tenon- 
ing" rail into stiles. In both cases the shaping is done after glueing up, 
then rebated, and the corners rounded. 



A Winged Wardrobe (next page). 

This type of wardrobe is built up of five parts, named plinth, cornice, sur- 
base, hanging carcase, tray carcase, and cornice, as illustrated in the key diagram. 
False ends are fitted into the tray carcases, which allows the trays to slide past 
the door edges when opened. This is a general rule in carcases when both doors 
are fitted inside the ends, and is, of course, not required when the doors are 
hung over the ends. f-in. stuff is used for the false ends, with slips placed at 
intervals in the space formed to prevent casting, and screwed through both 
pieces from inside. Heavy glazed doors are usually centre pivoted, and a stay 
is fixed to the door and carcase at the top to prevent the door swinging back 
too far. The diagram shows the front top rail of surbase about 4 in. wide, and 



CARCASE WORK 



157 





.J 

1- 







is 





158 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

made up to give extra width for dovetails. Figs. I., II., and III. below show 
methods of making glass backs for large wardrobe doors. This example is 

reproduced by permission of 
Messrs J. S. Henry & Co. 



A Hanging Wardrobe 

(see opposite). 

This is shown in front and 
sectional elevation. The large 
carcase is lap dovetailed to- 
gether, with a framed-up 
back screwed in, and then 
wide pilasters are glued into 
the front. Reeded columns 
are fitted over the corners of 
carcase and surbase, whilst 
all moulding lines follow round the column lines. Refer also to chapter on 
" Practical Geometry." The best construction for the door with an elliptical glass 
panel is to mitre the frame together with tongued joints, then cut and rebate the 
ellipse, and glue a small moulding round on the outside edges as shown. 




I 


f 


i/ 






'" II 
ImEl 

i 


\ 


h 

i 









1 

1 





Various Types of Glass Backs. 



A Gentlemen's Wardrobe (see opposite). 

This consists of a chest of drawers, surmounted by a tray cupboard. In cases 
where the outline is similar to the diagram, and drawers are substituted for the 
tray cupboard, a "Tall-boy" chest is formed 
— accurately speaking, two chests of drawers, 
one upon the other— with plinth or stand, 
and a cornice. False ends are necessary in 
this tray carcase, and as blocking the carcases 
for position is impracticable in the ordinary 
way, fillets are prepared, cut through as in 
f. IV. alongside, a plan of bottom part. Both 
small pieces are glued down, and the darkened 

parts are fixed to top carcase. To mark for position, touch each bearer with 
glue, set top part in position, and, when dry, turn the carcase over and screw 
down each bearer. To make the shaped feet, cut them out of 5-in. solid stuff, 
and tenon in the pieces to complete the foot. 




.Method of Keying an Upper Part. 



A Wardrobe. 

The wardrobe illustrated on p. 160 was exhibited at the Arts and Crafts 
Exhibition in 1906. It was designed and made in Cuba mahogany by Mr E. J. 



CARCASE WORK 



J 59 




> ii 

to] 



'* 



yj 





i6o 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



Minihane, and is well suited for a large bedroom or landing. As a piece of car- 
case work its construction is quite simple, consisting of three carcases, a plinth, 
and cornice. The centre part, with two doors, is fitted with trays and drawers, 
and the two wings provide good hanging cupboards, and a bonnet box. The 
design, which resembles the older type of " armoire " more than the modern 
wardrobe, is notable for its fine proportions, and in the simple but effective treat- 
ment of the doors, which are flush panelled and veneered with small figured stuff. 
The play of light on the diagonal markings in the pattern was a marked feature 
in the design. This effect is often lost sight of in the choice of veneers and figure, 




A Mahogany Wardrobe by Mr E. J. Minihane. 



especially in satinwood stuff, which, when polished, presents a surface upon 
which some extraordinary changes in light and shade effects are visible, 
according to its position in the room. This kind of work must be carefully 
planned, and the figure matched as near as possible in regular lines, or 
a distorted pattern will result, which will always be made more prominent 
by the polish and light. The raised mouldings on the doors were grooved 
in, and the moulding on each side was " run out," so as to form the flat 
diamond-shaped stops which give a distinctly decorative treatment to the 
constructive detail of the doors. The " run outs " are easily worked on the 
spindle machine. 



CARCASE WORK 161 



An Elliptical Writing Table (see next page). 

This piece of furniture is introduced here in order to illustrate principles 
relating to carcase work which is shaped in plan. The application of these 
principles is constantly occurring in work of this kind — for example, in kidney- 
shaped and circular carcases — and it should be set out upon a i-in. board in 
preference to paper, so that the templates can then be taken direct from the 
board. The method of making templates from a board is fully described in 
Chapter V., and in work of this character it is most important. 

Commencing with the plinth, the necessary templates are obtained for 
the segments, and also the plinth mouldings. Then proceed to obtain the 
templates for frieze and drawer fronts ; the top is marked direct from the board. 
When making the plinth frame, glue all the segments up, clean off the inside 
and brace them as shown in diagram. Next level the outside and veneer same 
(for description see chapter on " Veneering "), and then add the pilaster bases and 
the plinth moulding. The cross braces serve to strengthen the plinth frame, 
and also act as bearers for the carcases. The construction of the large carcase 
is shown in sectional plan, and the outside is built up or " coopered " with 
pieces of dry material about i£ in. thick, and 5 in. wide. These are bevelled 
and tongued together, planing to the true shape on the template after glueing 
up. Both inside ends are then constructed, framed together, glued between the 
pilasters, and finished off with curved pieces and door. 

The drawer rails are now tenoned, the top rails dovetailed, and the carcase 
bottom fixed ; this bottom runs right through the job, pinned at the divisions 
and pilasters, dovetailed where possible, and rebated and screwed. Fix runners 
on the ends, and prepare the dust-boards ; the whole carcase is then ready to 
glue up. A diagram also illustrates the construction of frieze frame, with top 
rail set back behind the drawer fronts ; this does not demand further 
explanation regarding construction ; a moulding is glued under frieze, also 
in segments. Wherever possible, such furniture as this should be made in 
parts for convenience both in making and transit, but this is not always 
practicable in shaped work. In this case the frieze is definitely dowelled 
and fixed to the main carcase, the plinth being blocked and temporarily 
screwed. Another principle in connection with carcases containing drawers 
is to flush off the fronts after the drawers are fitted. To effect this, temporarily 
stop the drawers with their fronts projecting slightly beyond the rails, and 
level down. Take out the drawers, tooth, veneer, and clean up, and insert 
the drawers again, stopping them the required distance from edge of rails. 
This method is quickest in the end, and it ensures all the " squares " being 
equal, and with good effect. Details are shown of the top ; this is framed 
together, moulded on the edge, and a lipping of cross-banded mahogany 
about 1^ in. wide surrounds the leather lining; the moulding details and 
alternate treatment for pilasters are drawn two-thirds full size. 

A writing table top of this size is best made in one solid piece, with 
a narrow cross-bandinsr of satinwood round the leather lining. Two or more 



i6 2 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



P L 
. < 




CARCASE WORK 163 

skins are used butted together across the top with a simple edging or border. 
When shrinkage occurs in panelled tops, it creates unsightly cracks or breaks 
in the leather. 



A Queen Anne Cabinet (see p. 164). 

This cabinet is made up of a carcase and surbase only. In the majority 
of cases where a curved cornice is introduced, it will be found advantageous 
to carry the framing and ends right through, and make a dust-board rebate 
by using the cornice moulding, which is glued round the framing and ends, 
and allowed to project about I in. above them. The surbase is made first, 
and is tongued and dovetailed together with the ogee moulding mitred round. 
This is followed by preparing the top and bottom members as indicated in 
sectional view, and glueing them round also. Two cross rails and also the 
back rail are made wider, notched out to receive the moulding, when the 
surbase is tried up ; the framing and ends are set out upon the top side, 
and made with wide top rails reaching to \ in. below top line of job. 
Enlarged scale view of carcase bottom shows the method of connection to 
the framing, with a panelled back screwed into rebates. The bottom moulding 
in this carcase is rebated and glued into position, as shown in section. To 
prepare the cornice moulding, templates must be cut to shape for marking 
out the stuff; the front piece follows the outline of the carving, and the 
moulding is stopped a few inches each side of the centre piece. This 
requires extra thickness, obtained by glueing on a piece of stuff to the 
moulding before it is cut. It will also be necessary to slip dovetail a rail 
curved in outline between the pilasters in order to carry the moulding ; also 
two rails between front and back for extra strength ; the moulding is then 
mitred all round. Mention has been made of the dust-board ; |-in. stuff is 
used, finished to bare thickness. The large curve can be bent into the rebate, 
and secured with glue and screws. The side pieces are bevel jointed, and 
worked to true shape before glueing in. The end grain of these dust-boards 
must be at the front. In addition to glass shelves, which would require light 
metal bar supports, the back and sides are sometimes lined with silvered 
plate glass, fitting close against the back and ends, and fixed by rebated 
mouldings screwed round the outside of each sheet. This sectional view 
shows an alternate treatment for a silk-lined cabinet with a wooden shelf 
supported by brass studs. 



A "William and Mary" China Cabinet (see p. 165). 

(Manufactured by Messrs J. S. Henry & Co.) 

The top part of this cabinet is constructed very similarly to the previous 
example, i.e., Queen Anne cabinet, with framed ends running right through, 



1 64 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




A Queen Anne China Cabinet, 








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CARCASE WORK 



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EML/3RS5EP* DE- 
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SC^LE- 



A "William and Mary" China Cabinet. 



166 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



and a front rail dovetailed in between to receive the cornice moulding, and a 
pilaster stub tenoned into the rail. An additional straining rail is also dovetailed 
between the semi-head to the back rail. The bottom part of this cabinet has six 
legs, with either a shelf or a curved underframing above the feet ; detail of 
moulding for this part is shown below. This shelf or framing is fixed to 
the shafts by turning f-in. pins on to the feet, with corresponding holes in 
shelf and legs. Place the shelf in position, well glue the pins, and cramp to- 
gether. The carcase is constructed by framing up the ends, setting the panel 
back, and mitreing a moulding round ; the back is either framed up and 

rebated in, or a solid piece dowelled between 
the legs. The correct and best method of 
making the legs is to cut them from 4-1'n. stuff, 
and reduce the knee parts after turning, but, 
as this is an expensive procedure, a more 
economical plan is usually followed. This 
consists of turning pins on the legs, and dowel- 
ling them into the posts on carcase. In either 
case the centre legs are twin tenoned into 
surbase. Rebated and moulded drawer fronts 
look exceedingly well (see detail on section), 
and effectively conceal any shrinkage in the 
drawer front. 




Nolo 
at- • B 



Details two 
thirds full 

SIZE 




Moulding Details. 



A Satinwood China Cabinet 

(see opposite). 

China cabinets are made in an infinite 
number of forms, and the types reproduced on 
the opposite and following pages are such as 
introduce sound constructional features and 
characteristic details of the styles they repre- 
sent. The cabinet on p. 167 is made up 
of three carcases, the centre one curved in plan 
like a flat ogee. It is not necessary to make 
separate cornices for this light form of carcase. The ends run through, and 
pieces are dovetailed between the ends to form the frieze, which is veneered 
and inlaid. The columns also carry through to the frieze moulding. This 
is of kingwood cut over the corners as with the columns, with the small 
remaining piece of column glued on to the frieze. A cornice is built up as 
shown in diagram, f. 1, p. 168. The inlaid portion, circular in plan, is also 
cut over, the straight lengths of moulding glued down, and the cornice com- 
pleted by the addition of a full top with moulded edge, screwed down from 
inside the carcases. To mitre round the base moulding, all columns are 
grooved }. in. deep to receive these mouldings, which are turned in the form of a 
ring, with straight lengths between them. The diagram on the same page shows 



CARCASE WORK 



167 




1 68 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



how to obtain the true mitre, when both are worked to the same section, and is 
further explained in chapter on " Practical Geometry." The shelves and interior 
parts of china cabinets are usually lined with silk or velvet, the shelves 
having a lipping or margin of polished wood about i in. wide. This is formed 
by gauging round the edges, and recessing the wood about T V in. deep (see 
f. 2 below). When the material is glued down, the edge is concealed by this 

lipping, and a level surface is obtained upon the 
top side. Glass shelves are also largely used, 
f in. thick, of plate glass, with slightly rounded 
edges, and are supported by screwing eyes into 
the cabinet angles, or as shown in accompanying 
details, f. 3 and 4. Although reeded and carved 
columns are used in this example, inlaid or 
1. 2. marquetried columns are frequently met with in 

these cabinets, and demand very careful treatment 
when laying the veneer. It will be quite obvious to the reader that when 
several pieces are cut into a veneer to form a design, it will easily break 
upon attempting to bend it. The marquetry is therefore backed up with a 
piece of linen or silk, firmly glued on, and which, when slightly moistened, 
allows of bending round the column without splitting. Well glue the toothed 
column and wait until quite chilled, then pin down one edge of the veneer, 






Sketches of- 
lug ■ supports 

SHELVES • 




BRACKET 



and carefully bend into position, binding tightly with wet webbing, until the 
whole is bound up. Thoroughly heat over a shaving blaze, which melts the 
glue, and at the same time dries the webbing, which contracts and expels the 
glue. The bottom space in the centre carcase may have either a fitted drawer 
or cupboard with an enclosing door — each would be equally effective — flush 
veneered and inlaid. 

Fig. 5 shows a bracket support used when a fixing can be obtained at one 
side only, as frequently occurs with glass-lined cabinets. 



CARCASE WORK 



169 



A Queen Anne Writing Cabinet. 

On p. 170 are drawings and details of a fine type of writing cabinet. 
Its design is associated with the early Queen Anne period, and although it 
is not, as a rule, made up now, it contains many good features in its con- 
struction. Some of the old examples are veneered with the cross sections 
of walnut and lignum vitae, the broad writing flap offering a suitable position 
for this type of work and decoration. The curved frieze was sometimes used 
as a drawer, especially in chests of drawers, and in some instances the top 
carcase was raised on legs. Italian walnut is the most suitable wood for a 
cabinet of this character, the striped figure being used to produce the " herring- 
bone" pattern on the drawer fronts. The ends of the carcase and the front 
edges of the drawer bearers were sometimes faced with cross-grained slips 
and rounded off, an expensive though very effective detail. The spacious 
inside carcase gives ample scope for nests of drawers, pigeon holes, and small 
lockers, and no one could wish for a more convenient and roomy cabinet. 
It is also known as a " Secretaire." 

The section shows the falling front supported by rule joint stays. The 
inside of the fall would be lined for writing purposes, and sometimes it would 
include another small flap which could be raised to any slope. 

The sectional view also shows the rebated joint of the carcase bottom 




-i Veneer,- Lippiho- • 



Methods of forming Lippings. 



and corresponding rebate on the fall. During the eighteenth century Sheraton 
produced many examples of this kind, ornamented with characteristic details 
and veneering, and further improved the mechanical action of the fall. This 
was effected by introducing pilasters at each side, and allowing the interior to 
overlap the same on the inside ; a cavity was thus formed between the 
stationery case and the carcase ends, in which a club iron movement operated. 
This is fully explained in the chapter on " Mechanical Actions," and has the 
advantage of providing a support almost entirely invisible from the front. The 
constructive features of this cabinet do not require special comment, the 
drawings conveying all necessary information apart from actual workshop 
practice. 

Varieties of Linings. — This section of work, properly speaking, belongs to 
" Table Lining," an industry confined to covering flat surfaces of tables with 
leather or substitutes for same, and lining cabinetwork with velvet or other 
material of a like character. A few words regarding this branch, however, are 
very necessary when the lining of falls is being dealt with. " Lippings " are first 
necessary to receive the leather, f. I., II., and III. showing methods of forming them ; 
the first example being only used in cabinet shelves, and effected by gauging a 



i 7 o MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




CARCASE WORK 



171 



line from the edge, cutting down to depth with a chisel. The best lining is 
" Morocco," a fine kind of leather, prepared from goat-skin, tanned with 
" sumach," and so called because it was first prepared by the Moors ; " Roan " is 
an imitation of the above, made from sheep-skin ; and " Skiver" is a more inferior 
imitation, prepared from split sheep-skin, and dyed to a large number of colours. 
Linings are fixed with a special preparation of paste to a toothed groundwork, 
and finished flush with lipping. With large surfaces the skins are butt jointed 
when laying. Various fancy borders complete the work, and these are executed 
with a heated branding tool, consisting of a wheel with a pattern upon the 
edge. This presses down the material, leaving a repeat pattern, in some cases 
gilt. The neatest finish is, however, without the gilding, and is termed "blind" 
bordering. 



A Secretaire Bookcase (see next page). 

Secretaire bookcases were quite a feature of eighteenth century work, and 
many fine examples were made by Chippendale. The top parts were enclosed 

by barred doors, or flush, as shown in the illus- 
tration, p. 172. The writing drawer is drawn 
forward, and the front released by pressing 




1. View showing Position of 
Thumb Catch. 



iiinfipnnpsnssnn 



IIIHIIMIIHII 



na 



Arrangement of Stationery Cases. 



thumb catches fixed to both the sides (see f. 1 above) ; one edge of front is 
rebated, and also the bottom, see enlarged detail. Dolphin hinges are fixed as 
illustrated, and quadrant stays prevent the drawer front falling lower than a 
horizontal line. Dolphin hinges are described in detail in the chapter on " Brass- 
work." The bottom of the drawer, f in. thick, is either cut from solid stuff and 
tongued into the sides, or it can be framed together — see also enlarged end view 
of drawer. It is prevented from withdrawing beyond the distance required by 
fixing two pieces of springy oak underneath, which fit flush into the bottom 
when inserting the drawer, and stop against the drawer when withdrawing. 
The upper doors are mitred, clamped, and veneered, with carving glued on after 
polishing, bottom doors framed and rebated. Fig. 2 shows the arrangement 
of stationery case, and f. 3 an alternate detail, with height increased to 8£ in. 



1 72 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




SECTlOn^] L -VIEW- 
WITH- SECRETAIRE- 
DRAWER. EXTENDED 



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A Secretaire Bookcase. 



CARCASE WORK 



i73 



Jardinieres. 

This type of furniture, see f. 1, was generally used for ferns, &c, standing in 
front of large wall mirrors, but modern ideas of decoration have almost displaced 
them. The shape is shown in plan, the interior being divided into two parts, 
and lined with lead or zinc. Bevelled jointing is used for the curved ends, 





\m>iM 



Inch 



SCALE - 



vnmm 
1. 




the curved plinth rail being cut from solid stuff, veneered and moulded. The 
cap moulding is framed up, the interior linings having a flange or collar lapping 
over the inside edge. Smaller types of jardinieres are common, and are used 
for fern pots on tables and stands. 



A Dressing Chest (see next page). 

The drawings on p. 174 show, in the bottom part, a suitable treatment when 

the chest stands alone, with 
a small separate toilet mirror 
placed upon it. The upper 
part illustrates a construc- 
tion frequently employed in 
dressing -chest top parts, 
viz., in the circular mirror, 
drawers, and shelf. The 
methods adopted in execut- 
ing such work are of a 

2. Method of Glueing up a Circular Frame. general character, and apply 

to many other examples of 
this kind. A diagram shows the construction of the carcase, and a full drawer 




174 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



• VIEW 




X 



VlE^- SHEWIHG • COM- 
STI^VJOTIOM . OF« COPBOfl^D' 



pLflfN -ON -XX 



Sc^LE-- | ll l | l | ll lll| I I =E 



4 FEET 



A Dressing Chest. 



CARCASE WORK 



'*5 



division is introduced to serve also as cupboard bottoms, these being dovetail 
housed into the division and end ; the drawer runner is also shown, and the method 
of connecting it to the rail. A circular glass frame with cross-banded front 
is made by preparing a framing of whitewood (see f. 2, p. 173), the inside cut 
to the mirror size. This acts as a mould for building up the glass frame. Three 
strips of thin pine are prepared with toothed faces. One piece is sprung into 
the opening and forced against the wood. The butt joint should be cut slightly 
long to allow the strip to press against the shape. This process is repeated with 
the other strips, which should be warmed and glued before they are sprung into 





2. 



position. If carefully done, cripples in the stuff will not occur, and the joint 
can be rubbed down with the hand. Upon completion of glueing and drying, 
the frame is withdrawn and veneered, or faced up and moulded according to 
the design. The connection of the standards is illustrated in f. 1. The small 
carcase is made as shown, and the standards are slip dovetailed into the shaped 
shelf. The back is also shown, but this would be screwed in position after 
the standards were fixed. This shaped back is notched at both ends, and the 
shelf fits into the back rail, thus allowing the moulding to run through to the 
back line. Segmental building up is used for the shaped head, or it may be 
cut from solid stuff, and dovetailed into the standards. Fig. 2 shows an alternate 
treatment, veneered and inlaid, for the cupboard doors. 



Music Cabinets. 

The arrangements for holding music in furniture are very diverse, ranging 
from a fitted seat to a substantial cabinet, with tray-lined upper part. The 
dwarf music cabinet shown on p. 176 has four drawers fitted in the lower part, 



176 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




CARCASE WORK 



*77 




providing storage capacity for bound volumes and portfolios, and a cupboard 
fitted with sliding trays intended for sheet music. Music cabinets of this 
type are essentially a product of the twentieth century, many of them 
embracing mechanical features in falling fronts to racks, &c. The decorative 
treatment of the example shown is in Italian walnut with inlays of snakewood. 
The cupboard doors are mitre clamped and veneered, and the lines are 
inlaid to the curved design 
shown by cutting a template of 
{-in. hardwood. This is tem- 
porarily fixed in position, and 
grooves are cut with scratch 
stock and cutter as indicated 
in f. I alongside. The process 
of building up the veneered 
patterns on drawer fronts is 
described in Chapter IX. A 
curved stand is illustrated, built 
up with square shoulders and 
veneered. The tray detail is 
similar to that described in con- 
nection with a tray wardrobe in 
this chapter, with slips fixed to 
false ends (see also enlarged 
detail). A front elevation of a 
music cabinet with falling front 
is shown in f. 2. 



1. Use of Scratch Stock against Curved Template. 



Height 

4 FEET 




l<3- MUSIC CABINET 
WITH -FALLING ■ 
FR.ONT • 






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A Flemish Cabinet 

(see pp. 178, 179). 

The measured drawings of 
this cabinet and the enlarged 
details are taken from an ex- 
ample in the Victoria and Albert 
Museum. The part sectional 
view illustrates the construction 

of this piece, as it would be made at the present day, differing slightly from the 
original. Fine proportions and details are a feature in this cabinet, notably the 
pilasters and the spacing of doors and panels. The split turning and strapwork 
on pilasters are of ebony, as are also the large ball feet. An enlarged detail 
shows the method of framing up the door, rebated to receive the splayed part, 
which is mitred round and fits into the rebated frame. Reference to the front 
elevation also shows the method of fixing the feet. Blocks are cut to fit inside 
the corner of the plinth, and the feet are pinned into them. 



178 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



^^mM^^m^.^(mr^wih:Mr^^jm^\m^^ 




A Flemish Cabinet. 



CARCASE WORK 



179 




Details of Flemish Cabinet. 



180 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



A Tall-Boy Cabinet. 

This is a development of the "tall-boy" chest of drawers, in which a stand 
is substituted for the lower chest. The stand is quite characteristic of modern 
Queen Anne work, other examples of which are given elsewhere in the book. 



Detail -of -end • 
two • thirds 




CORNICE -TWO 
THIRDS • FULL 
SIZE • 




Fu^rs of under. - 

FRflMING 




1 



2. Type of 

William and 

Mary Turning. 



The ends are put together first, and framed up as shown in detail, f. i, the divisions 
and bottoms are then connected, and the apron piece or curved rail in front is 
fitted over the bottom, as shown in sketch ; it is secured by dowelling, and stub 



CARCASE WORK 




i8 2 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




Design for a Cabinet by Mr A. J. Jessop. 

{Reproduced by permission of the Editor oj the " Cabinet Maker.") 



CARCASE WORK 



183 



tenoned into the legs. The centre legs are made separately, and turned pins 
about f in. diameter fit into the apron piece. Details of the leg for this cabinet 
are shown on p. 116 in connection with a writing table of the same period. The 
enlarged detail of turning, f. 2, on p. 180, is of the William and Mary type, 
executed in oak. When either kind of leg is used, the underframing is made 
separately, and the feet have turned pins fitting through the frame into the leg 
above. Fig. 3 is a sectional view of the cornice moulding with cross-grained 
facings, a special feature of Queen Anne work. The end panel mouldings and the 
surbase in this job are also cross-grained. Fig. 4 is a plan of the underframing. 

The illustration on this page shows a simple arrangement for a bureau flap, 
by which the supporting slider is withdrawn or pushed home as the flap is opened 
or closed. It can be applied to any bureau flap which is supported by the usual 




Simple Arrangement for a Bureau Flap. 



slider, as seen in the designs on pp. 126 and 146. The movement is made of 
thin plate brass I in. in width. Both ends are riveted to a short piece of the same 
material, and in such a way that the centres work true and easy. These pieces 
are again fixed into a flat plate which is prepared for screwing into the slider 
and flap as shown. To obtain the length of the bar, pull out the slider to the 
required distance, in this case about one-third of its whole length, take half that 
distance from the bottom edge of the flap to the centre of the bar, and then from 
that point to the back end of the slider is the length of the brass bar, allowing 
for the plate. When this movement is used the solid shelf is not carried right 
through, or it is cut short at both ends to make a passage for the flange to work. 
The pigeon-hole case is made short and the filling-in piece cut to allow for the 
bar. For other movements see chapter on " Brasswork." 



CHAPTER VIII. 
BEDSTEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS FURNITURE. 

Designs, Working Details, and Full size Diagrams of French, Four-Poster, and Ordinary 
Wood Bedsteads — Clock Cases — Grandfather, Section of Carcase, Details of Mould- 
ings, Hinges, &c. — Balloon and Hanging Clock Cases, and how to make them — 
Chippendale Commode with Curved Front and Ends — Adjustable Pole and Wing 
Fire Screens — Folding Draught Screen — Swing Toilet Glass with Drawers — Wall 
Mirror — Hanging and China Cabinets — Combination Hall Stand and Seat — 
Revolving Bookcase — Dinner Waggon — Grand Piano — Corner Cabinet — Rising 
Dumb Waiter — Hall Seat — Pedestal. 

Apart from the special furniture for dining, drawing, and bed rooms, there 
are many articles such as clock cases, screens, &c, which are used in all. 
These are described in detail in the following pages, and it would be possible to 
enlarge on furniture for kitchens, bathrooms, and nurseries, which would, how- 
ever, only mean a repetition of constructive principles given in such chapters as 
those on Table and Carcase Work. 



A French Bedstead (see opposite). 

This type of bedstead has been almost superseded by the English pattern, 
in which the wooden rails are dispensed with, and iron bars with key blocks on 

posts substituted, but a general description 
of wooden bedsteads would be incomplete 
without an example of this kind. The sec- 
tional detail of foot on p. 185 shows the 
posts faced up and fluted ; the foot end is 
built up in three thicknesses and cross veneered 
on both sides. This construction is usual with 
large panels in French furniture, and is rendered 
very necessary when dealing with large flat 
surfaces. The end is housed into the posts, 
and the carved mouldings are glued on after 
polishing. The head is framed up with the wide 
bottom rail, carving, and paterae as at foot. 
Both capping mouldings may be worked in the 
solid, and fitted to the shapes, or they may be 
worked to a template and glued on to the face sides, veneering the top edge 
after levelling off. Box spring mattresses are generally used with those 




Connection of Rails at Ends. 



BEDSTEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS FURNITURE 




i86 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

bedsteads, and fillets are screwed to the inside of rails for supporting them. 
The rails are stub tenoned and bolted to the ends, see diagram on previous 
page, and also the view of a French bedstead bolt in f. I below. The nut should 
be cut into the posts, and the spaces filled in with pieces of wood. 



Bedsteads (see opposite). 

These bedsteads do not require any detailed description of the con- 
struction, and are only given as types. The attachment of side 
rails, however, must be noted ; they are similar to an iron 
bedstead, with side rails and key blocks screwed to the posts, 
see f. 2. Chain mattresses are frequently used in con- 
junction with iron or wood side rails. Fillets should be 
fixed to the mattress frame underneath, close to side rails, 
thus preventing the frame from moving about ; wooden slats are 



Sketch- of 
bedstead • 

BOLT- 



i. 2. Detail of 

Key Block. 

also occasionally used notched into rails, and are made of some serviceable 
wood about 3 in. wide and f in. thick. 






Four Poster Bedstead (see p. 188). 

The bedstead on p. 188 is of this type, and was manufactured by Messrs 
Heal & Son, of Tottenham Court Road. It consists of a framed-up head, with 
turned posts at the foot supporting a canopy or tester. These beds were most 
frequently made during the Elizabethan and Jacobean period, and the bed itself 
was usually a " truckle " or " trundle " type, quite separate from the posts and 
canopy ; and could be drawn out when required. A later development of this 
type of furniture is the French pattern, with construction similar to that illus- 
trated on p. 185. The head and foot frames are attached by rails, with a canopy 
projected from the head. Chippendale and Sheraton both produced very ornate 
specimens of four-poster bedsteads, in which the use of drapery was a prevailing 
feature, drawn up into folded swags at the sides when not in use. The framing 
and posts of these latter types were connected with rails — a decided improvement 
on the earlier examples — and canopies were panelled and made in the form of a 
cornice, fitting on to the head framing with holes bored at the bottom to receive 
turned pins on the pillars. Fine examples of bed pillars are shown in the 



BEDSTEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS FURNITURE 



187 




MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



original books of Chippendale and Sheraton, and well repay careful study. 
The Elizabethan types are well represented in the Victoria and Albert 
and Bethnal Green Museums. The very ornate character of these early 
four-poster beds is accounted for by the social customs of the period, 

when the bed-chamber was 
frequently used as a recep- 
tion-room. 



Clock Cases. 

A "hanging" or wall 
clock is shown on next page. 
It was executed at Shore- 
ditch Technical Institute, 
and consists of a carcase 
formed by slip dovetailing 
the bottom between the 
sides, and the top is lap 
dovetailed. The front is 
veneered and inlaid with 
corner edgings of cross-cut 
kingwood on the sides and 
bottom. The plan shows 
the method of fixing the 
front, tongued into the sides 
and bottom, and the back 
is rebated and screwed. A 
door in this case is not 
required for access to the 
movement ; if this is neces- 
sary the back is removed 
by unscrewing it. The 
movement is fixed to the 
end by a bracket attached 
to the back plate, screwed 
Before setting out or designing clock 




A Modern " Four- Poster." 
{By Heal &* Son.) 



to the ends or riveted through 

cases, the movement should be obtained and the case made accordingly. 



A Balloon Clock Case. 

The " balloon " clock case, also shown on next page, is simple in construction, 
but the veneering may prove troublesome unless properly handled. A sectional 
view shows the construction, viz., a block of beech or mahogany is cut to outline, 



BEDSTEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS FURNITURE 



189 




Scale fpr, 
hanging ci?ctc 

CASE • 



Front • View ■ or 

SATINW99D HANG- 
ING ClPCK CASE 



4>" 

5" 
..5" 



Secti<?nalview 

AND PLAN- • 




11 F°OT 



VIEW SHEWING 
&ACIC CPVER_ 



Front 



view 






Ill hnhnln-H fes SCALAR, 



BALLON CLPCK. CASE 



Hanging and Balloon Clock Cases, 



190 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



with allowance inside for a short swing pendulum, the back and front are glued 
upon this shape and levelled off. Well tooth and size the case, and prepare 
pine cauls to fit the shape (see f. i), also prepare three stiff pieces of cardboard 
to cramp under the cauls. Well glue the groundwork and allow to chill. 

Thoroughly heat the small caul and 
cardboard, and place the veneer in 
position at top, also a block inside 
case (see diagram), hand-screw 
caul to the shape, and carefully 
bend the veneer down each side, 
then place the side cardboards and 
cauls in position, and well cramp 
together across the case ; a strong 
block placed inside will prevent 
the joints breaking under pressure. 
The hand-screws should be fixed 
at the top first, and the veneer will 
then lay down without buckling. 
The usual movement is shown in 
this case. The bezel is attached to 
the movement and forms a rebate 
in front, which fits into a circular hole, and a cover is fixed at the back. Brass 
straps from the bezel are secured and tightened by set screws in the back rim 
as shown in section. 




1. Veneering with 
Wooden Cauls. 




2. Veneering with Sheet 
Zinc. 



Bracket Clocks. 

This is a term applied to nearly all small clocks, and originated in the late 
eighteenth century because of their position, i.e., standing on a wall bracket. 
The semi-head is a typical shape (see f. 2), the veneering of which is accom- 
plished by screwing a piece of stiff zinc firmly to two blocks ; another block is 
also screwed temporarily to the bottom. The pressure is obtained by cramping 
as shown, and hand-screwing right across the flat sides. 



Grandfather Clock Cases. 

The measured drawings and detail of a clock case, reproduced by per- 
mission of C. Vickers, Esq., represent the characteristic detail and proportion of 
the transitory period between William and Mary and Queen Anne. The 
influence of the latter period is clearly indicated in the semi-headed door and 
curved part of hood, as well as the bulbous shaped terminals of Dutch origin at 
the top. This example also illustrates the application of fancy hinges, shown in 
detail, and their position on the door ; the centre is brought forward and causes 
the door moulding to clear the groundwork immediately it is opened. This con- 






BEDSTEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS FURNI 



LURE 



BR.ASS-TER. 
MINflLS ■ CAPS 
AND BASES OP 
COLUMNS 




191 



A Grandfather Clock Case. 



1 92 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

structive principle is also shown in the Queen Anne cabinet in Chapter VII. 

A perspective view of the hood shows the method of connecting it to the shaft, 

the sides of which are as indicated 
in sectional front elevation, with a 
fillet fixed, and so forming a groove 
for the hood fillet to run in. The 
side panels are in this case of glass, 
but pierced brass panels are fre- 
quently used in eighteenth century 
work. The construction of end panels 
is determined by design, with a wide 
rail connecting them at top, the 
curved portion of hood being bent 
round and strengthened from inside. 
A back is fixed to the shaft portion 
of case, filling in the opening of 
hood when in position. Moulding 
details, characteristic of this period 
in woodwork, are shown, and the 
fixing of same is illustrated in sec- 
tional view ; this also shows the 
construction of the shaft, with stiles 
running through to ground, and the 
surbase mitred round bearers or 
cross bars screwed to ground frame, 
and completed by the addition of 
the surbase moulding. Details of 
brass caps and bases of pillars are 
illustrated on p. 191, and also the 
plan of the column and door. An 
alternate decorative treatment suitable 
for modern work is indicated on this 
page, in which simplicity of out- 
line is the keynote, the decoration 
being obtained by the judicious 

arrangement of contrasting figures in veneer, and the application of inlay. 




A Modern Grandfather Clock Case. 



A Chippendale Commode (see opposite). 

The drawings show a Chippendale commode, shaped in plan with 
" bombe " front and carved legs, and " tern " feet. This piece, like many of 
Chippendale's productions, is distinctly Louis XV. in character, from which period 
many of his shapes and ornament details were taken — the " Rococo" detail being 
perhaps the most conspicuous instance. Many points, involved in the production 



BEDSTEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS FURNITURE 



l 9. 




A Chippendale Commode. 



l 3 



i 9 4 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



of commodes, in this and also the French periods, are embodied in this example. 
The elevation, section, and plan illustrate the main characteristics, and when 
work of this character, shaped only in plan, is to be produced, it is customary, 
in addition to a working drawing conveying main details to the workman, to 
supply a carved pinewood model of one corner, carved up until the proper 
proportion and curves are decided, glueing on extra stuff where necessary, or, as 
an alternative, modelling clay is used upon a wooden groundwork. The best 
construction is then determined from the model, and templates can be prepared 
for legs and other shapes from the model. With " bombe " front work it is 
necessary to make a complete commode in soft wood, which is then modelled or 
carved up to the design. The advantage of such procedure is obvious, when 
considering that any alteration to the actual ccmmode in an advanced stage 
would necessitate almost reconstructing the whole piece. 
When cutting the legs, a template must be prepared to 
an outline on the diagonal line B B (see enlarged detail 
on p. 193). The legs are marked out to this template, and 
cut to shape — it will be necessary to square two sides of 
the front legs above the line of carcase bottom — and when 
this is accomplished, rails, bottom, and end are prepared. 
These latter are shaped in section only, and are best 
cut from 6 or 9 in. stuff, and glued up to the required 
width ; one end must be scribed to the inside of leg and 
dowelled up, completing the end by dowelling into the 
straight back legs. It is certainly advisable in work of 
this kind to glue up both ends before fitting in the front 
part, grooving the ends for division frames and bottoms 
before doing so. The drawer rails must be marked from 
the model. For this reason the fronts are simply driven 
in hand tight on the model, thus permitting proper tem- 
plates to be made from rails. These are cut square 
to the line of greatest projection, and mortised and 
tenoned into the legs, completing each drawer rail or 
division by framing up as shown in sectional plan. 
Drawer fronts are best cut from solid stuff to the approximate front shapes, 
and then fitted into the spaces, and stopped by temporarily glueing blocks 
behind them. The " bombe " shape can then be worked with planes and 
" floats," leaving the carved part, and when completed the fronts are withdrawn 
and gauged to thickness (see sectional view). If necessary the fronts are 
veneered with sand bags, and the carving shapes are glued on. The drawers can 
then be put together, as illustrated in the enlarged detail. Sides are set in from 
each end of drawer front, and slip dovetailed into the fronts. Pieces are then 
glued to the legs between the division frames and behind the drawer fronts, 
inserting guides in line with inside edges. It should be noted that with this 
method of construction it is necessary to make the end rails of drawer divisions 
of greater width in order to provide the extra material for drawer sides to 
run upon. 




Wing of Draught 
Screen. 



Plate XXI. 




Satinwood Wardrobe. By the Bath Cabinetmakers Co. 



[To fact page 194. 



Plate XXII. 




Mahogany China Cabinet. 
(Designed by Mr George Jack, and made by Messrs Morris 6° Co., Oxford Street, IV.) 



BEDSTEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS FURNITURE 



195 



Folding Screens. 

The simplest and commonest type of screen is the threefold kind, 
consisting of framed-up wings with silk or wood panels. Knuckle joint screen 
hinges are used for connecting the wings, the fixing of which is described in 
chapter on "Brasswork." The sketch on p. 194 illustrates one wing suitable for 
a draught screen. A heavier type used in hotels, clubs, &c, has a moulded joint 
between the wings which renders it quite draught-proof. Special hinges are 
necessary for this screen, which are also described in the chapter on " Brasswork," 
and the joint itself is dealt with in " Joints and their Application." 



Fire Screens (see p. 196). 

The Sheraton fire screen illustrated consists of a flush frame, rebated for 
glass and tapestry. Standards are tenoned into feet, and these are connected 

by the curved rail under 
panel ; a rail is also fixed 
at the top in the back side, 
not shown in plan. It is 
readily adjusted to any 
height, and for this reason 
the standards are grooved, 
the frame fitting inside 
them. Screw movements 
are illustrated for support- 
ing the frame, but springs 
fixed at either side of the 
top rail pressing against 
the back are more satisfactory, on the same principle of those illustrated in f. 2. 
A winged fire screen is illustrated in f. 1, the outside wings are hinged to the 
centre frame, and the outside stiles of these frames are carried through in the 
form of a lee. 





1. A Fire Screen. 



2. Pole 
Screen 

Fitting. 



Pole Screens (see p. 196). 

A Louis XVI. example is illustrated, drawn in elevation and plan, and f. 2 
on this page shows a steel spring attachment. The panel is adjusted by simply 
pushing upwards or downwards. These pole screens were fashionable in the 
eighteenth century, and Chippendale, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton designed 
them in their own styles. The design of the one shown is similar to Sheraton 
work, as he adapted the Louis XVI. details. Various methods were used for 
the construction of the base, the commonest of which were the triangular block 
with curved sides, and the claw feet ; but the method shown in the design tends 
to lessen the length of the pole and gives it a better proportion. They were 
usually made of satin or rosewood, and the shape of the screen frame varied 
from circular, shield, and oval, to square or rectangular. 



i 9 6 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




Polk and Fire Scrkkns. 



BEDSTEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS FURNITURE 



197 



A Corner Cabinet (see p. 198). 

As mentioned previously in connection with the drawing of a hanging 
cabinet, these examples adequately illustrate the constructional features of 
corner cabinets. A drawer is introduced in this example, although it is 
not recommended where there is not sufficient running surface. The drawer 
is similar in shape to the plan, and as the sides are of necessity very 
short, two muntings are fixed underneath the drawer (see f. 1) with centred 
dovetailed grooves. Runners are also fixed to the drawer rail and back, with 
a dovetailed key piece fixed upon it and sliding in the dovetailed groove. These 
act as guides when working the drawer. The construction of the top carcase is 





1. View showing Underneath Side of Drawer. 



Clamp on Top. 



illustrated, showing the dovetailed joints of carcase top. A solid top with carved 
edges is used to form a cornice. Fig. 2 illustrates the method of clamping this 
piece to avoid the end grain for carving upon. To fix the bottom in lower carcase, 
groove about I in. deep into back frames and pilasters, tenoning at front. When 
the carcase is glued together screw the bottom through back frames and well 
block the angles underneath. Both bottom doors are flush veneered with 
mouldings mitred round. Clamped ends prevent the doors casting, and they 
are also veneered on both sides. The detail of moulding is shown and also the 
meeting joint. 

A Dinner Waggon (see p. 199). 

Dinner waggons are intended to carry extra dishes and dining-room 
accessories not immediately required on the table, and as such should contain 
good shelf, cupboard, and drawer space. This is amply provided for in the type 
illustrated, which is far superior to the " shelf and column " variety. Revolving 
castors should be fixed on the feet, for easy transit about the room. The lining 
under the top should be framed up and slot screwed to the top. A sketch 
indicates the connection of drawer rail with side, with the mitred moulding above 
the pillar. The doors should be of three-ply oak, and the panelling obtained 
by glueing i-in. strips of oak on the surface, the outside margin being mitred 
round the edge of door. This serves a double purpose, i.e., in concealing the 
three-ply joints, and showing the required margin for panelling. When the 
pieces have been fitted and glued to the groundwork, it is levelled off and 
cleaned up before mitreing and glueing the mouldings (see detail of door 
mould). The drawer fronts are rebated to receive the moulding, see sectional 
view of drawer front on the line A A. 



i 9 8 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




Scale for_ • • 

ELEVATION 



1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 d 



Inches 



A Corner China Cabinet. 



BEDSTEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS FURNITURE 




200 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

Revolving Bookcases. 

There are three different methods of construction used in these bookcases, 
the best type being illustrated on next page. The sectional view shows 
detail of centre post, in this case of pine faced up with walnut ; it also shows 
the shelves grooved into the post. This is further illustrated in the plan, in 

which is seen the construction of the 
framed shelves. These are secured on 
the outside by the pilasters, screwed to 
the shelves, or, as in the majority of 
cases, screwed laths instead of the solid 
piece. A patent revolving action is 
illustrated, much easier to manipu- 
late than the other details described 
below. The plan also shows the shape 
of base board, with socket plate screwed 
in position. The second constructive 
detail is given on this page. A post is 
boxed up of ^-in. stuff, and both ends 
are filled in with a block. The revolving 
process is effected by means of a turned 
pillar, bored through the pillar bottom, 
with a i -in. pin turned at top, forming 
a shoulder as shown, which receives the 
whole weight of bookcase. A base is 
made of if -in. stuff X, to which the 
centre pillar is mortised, and bolted as 
shown, and is further strengthened by 
the addition of four brackets. A third 
construction consists of building up the 
bookcase with a faced-up centre post, 
and fixing a short pillar to the X piece. 
The bottom of bookcase rests upon four 
flush plate castors, sunk into the base, 
and revolves upon them, but this is the 
least satisfactory method for this kind 
of bookcase. The system of jointing 
shelves as illustrated is undoubtedly 
the best, but four shelves are frequently used to form one tier, and the joints 
are concealed by the book stops, the position of which is shown in the 
diagram on this page. The solid side supports illustrated on next page are 
an unusual but effective treatment, executed in Italian walnut, with inlays of 
rosewood, snakewood, and ebony, and herring-bone inlays of Italian walnut. 
Spots are introduced in lines with the shelves, concealing the screw fixings. 




Views of a Revolving Bookcase. 



Hall-Stands (see p. 203). 

Although hall-stands are generally simple in character, seldom exceeding 
the bare accommodation for wearing apparel, sticks, and umbrellas, they 



BEDSTEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS FURNITURE 



20I 



•■■r, y,....~ - — .-11)11 




Elevation • of- 

a-side • • 

I ■ ■ I ■ ■ I ■ ■ I ■ ■ 4- 



f^^NS^SW^^ 




Sectional.- view- om • Line X-X 



d 

Z FEE.T 




Sectional- plan • shewing- • 

rtP-R-flNGEMENT- OF SHELVES 



Plan of • • 

STAND 



A Revolving Bookcase. 



202 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

are made more imposing and useful when the hall is of sufficient size to 
receive a large piece of furniture. The example illustrated has the added 
advantage of providing for ordinary requirements, and also a seat with 
receptacle for indispensable accessories. The hanging capacity could very well 
be increased by adding another panel to the back — thus increasing the space 
between enclosures — and also by inserting cross rails between the side frames, 
and adding pegs as required to serve for hats. The features of this stand are a 
panelled back with pilasters and consoles supporting the cornice. The whole 
of the front part is framed together and mortised to the back framing. Fig. I 
is a sketch showing the construction of the back. It will be noticed that the 
shoulder line falls behind the pilaster, thus avoiding an unsightly line across the 
top rail. The arrangement of tenons and tongue will also be seen from this 





Sketch of Top Rail Joint 
with Stile. 



2. Sketch showing Construction 
of Enclosures. 



diagram. The bottom part of back is panelled with a flush surface at the front, 
not shown. Fig. 2 is a sketch showing the inside return of enclosures. A space 
is left underneath the rail for withdrawal of pan into the centre part. The 
outside returns of enclosures arc panelled similar to front, and the bottom is 
grooved in position, as shown in section. All stiles are allowed to run right 
through to floor line, and a skirting is mitred round after the whole job is 
together. The sectional view also shows the arrangement of cornice. Brackets 
are fixed at intervals, and the moulding between the consoles is made wider to 
overhang the brackets. Wooden pegs are tenoned through the back frame, and 
secured by wedging from behind ; they should be cut square to profile, and 
worked to an octagonal shape. A sketch is also shown of the pan section with 
rolled edge. This forms a supporting flange or collar, necessary in some stands. 
The arrangement of the seat will be understood from the diagram. A three- 
sided frame is made, housed between the enclosures, with a clamped top 
hinged to the back rail. The bevelling at panel heads in the back is obtained 



BEDSTEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS FURNITURE 



203 




2o 4 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

by setting back the panel from the face, and spokeshaving the square edge of 
rail to the required shape. 

A Hanging Cabinet (see opposite). 

The hanging cabinet illustrated here with veneered doors is also referred to 
as a medicine chest, as distinct from the other example with moulded and glazed 
doors, used for the display of china. A separate carcase with surmounting 
cornice is frequently met with, but appears hardly necessary in such small work. 
The construction employed in the first example is to carry the outside ends 
ritjht through to the dust-board. The inside ends are attached to the carcase 
top by pinning, and the rest of joints, carcase top to sides, and bottoms to ends, 
are housed and dovetailed. The frieze rail is grooved into the ends, and 
veneered when glued up. Enlarged detail of cornice mouldings is given, the 
decoration composed of alternate East and West Indian satinwood dentils. The 
carcase back should be framed up, and the shaped piece at bottom tongued to 
the panelled frame, thus avoiding unsightly shoulder lines. 

A Hanging China Cabinet (see opposite). 

This example, together with the above and the corner cabinet also 

dealt with in this chapter, practically em- 
bodies all the points likely to be met with 
in this class of work. The plan shows the 
back frames rebated and screwed together, 
and tongued into the pilasters. The carcase 
top and bottom are rebated, dovetailed, 
and screwed into the frames and pilasters. 
The top is moulded with indentations carved 
at intervals, the bead run out as shown. The 
door frame is dovetailed together, and the 
Sectional Plan of Corner Cupboard. moulding on edge of bars is also run out. 

To work the wave bars, they must be 
shaped to plan before cutting the elevation curves and matching the moulding. 

A Pedestal (see opposite). 

The drawing of a Chippendale pedestal is given to illustrate general pro- 
portions and method of preparation for carvings. Sheraton, Hepplewhite, and 
Adam also produced these pedestals, and the differences consist rather in the 
decoration than in the proportion and construction. The actual groundwork 
is very similar in all cases. The shaft is mitred and tongued together, and 
well blocked inside ; the base is built up and veneered, and a subsidiary top is 
dowelled to the shaft. The carvings are roughly cut to profile, rebated and 
scribed to the groundwork. These are glued in position, and screwed where 
possible from the inside, and finally carved to drawing. The sectional view 
shows the building up of the curved top. 




BEDSTEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS FURNITURE 



205 



hdl_F FROjsT E.LEVATI9N 
AND SECTIQWL-VIEW-OF 
fl SflTlNW<?PD HANGING- 
CABINET • 




Hanging Cabinets and Pedestal. 



2o6 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



A Toilet Glass (see opposite). 

This pattern toilet glass with drawers below is both serviceable and 

decorative, and the bottom part is 
put together as shown in sketches. 
Secret lapped dovetailing is used 
for the top, and a rebate is thus 
formed to receive the moulding 
at the ends ; this is also continued 
along the front edge. 

The inside vertical divisions 
should be housed and slip dove- 
tailed into the top and bottom, 
with similar joints in the hori- 
zontal divisions (see sketch on 
next page). Bevelled dovetailing 
in top drawers is also illustrated 
with cocked beads round edges. 
The glass frame is mortised and 
tenoned together and veneered 
with Italian walnut on the face 
side, a -]-in. edging of purplewood 
is glued round the frame, firmly 
bound with tape until dry. If any 
difficulty is experienced in bend- 
ing the edging, a heated iron bar 
will expedite matters. The wood 
is moistened on the outside and 
bent round the bar until the 
desired curve is obtained (see 
f. 2). To make the feet a length 
of moulding is worked to section 
shown, and cut off in lengths. 
These are mitred and tongued 
together, the curves cut and the 
feet screwed to the carcase. 




1. Inlaid Hanging Wall Mirror. 



A Hanging Wall Mirror (see above). 

The frame in f. 1 is the modern successor to the carved girandoles and 
candelabra mirrors of the late eighteenth century. 
Rosewood is the material used, with a groundwork 
of mahogany, and the inlay of satinwood. After 
setting out the pattern full size on paper, the 
veneers are cut and fitted, then pinned to ground- 
work and the joints secured with strips of paper. 
When the veneer is laid the grooves are scratched 
for inlay and the lines inserted. 




2. Bending Lines round 
Heated Bar. 



BEDSTEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS FURNITURE 



207 




208 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

A Hall Seat (see opposite). 

This simple hall seat in oak with carved strapwork frieze (executed at 
Shoreditch Technical Institute) illustrates the general proportions and sizes of 
this class of furniture. The back frame is moulded and housed into the posts, 
tenoning the top and bottom rails, with the cap moulding dowelled to framing. 
The seat is tenoned at the front and well blocked underneath, with span rail 
stub tenoned into lees and screwed to seat. 



A Dumb Waiter. 

This article of furniture, curiously but appropriately named, is intended for 
use as an additional receptacle for dishes. It is also made in circular form 
of two tiers to stand in the centre of a dining-table, revolving as required. 
Dumb waiter movements for the circular type can be obtained to fit a turned pillar 
with plate or flange screwed to the top. The drawings below illustrate the 
rising and falling pattern, the sectional view showing the waiter with top raised. 
A reference to the other sectional view shows a roller fixed in the post, and 

the sliders connected with webbing. 
When not in use, the springs fixed to 
outside slides are pressed in, allowing 
the top part to descend, at the same 
time effecting a rising action in the 
shelf, this fitting under the top. To 
counterbalance the difference in 
weight between the shelf and top, 
sheet lead should be fixed to the 
underside of shelf. A sectional plan 
of pillar is also shown, with the outside 
slide grooved, which is to receive a 
corresponding projection left on the 
shelf, an additional preventive against 
running untrue. The pillar is boxed 
up as indicated in plan, mortised into 
the stand at bottom, and further 
strengthened by the addition of 
curved brackets, a centre rail con- 
necting the two pieces at the bottom. 
Horizontal supports for shelves are 
in bracket shape attached as shown 
to the sliders, the top bracket is also 
fixed to the lining up of top. A centre rail is introduced between the inside sliders 
under the shelf, acting as a gauge or binding between both slides. Various 
materials were used in dumb waiters to connect the slides at bottom, such as 
cord and catgut, working upon a double roller, but the fixing of these materials 
is unsatisfactory, and webbing fixed as shown in sectional view is strong and 
permits of proper fixing, as well as providing a much increased running surface. 
An ovolo moulding is worked round three sides of the pillar at top, the outside 
edges left square with a brass plate inserted to provide a seating for the spring. 




A Rising Dumb Waiter. 



BEDSTEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS FURNITURE 



209 




M 



CHAPTER IX. 

VENEERS AND VENEERING— MARQUETRY AND INLAYING. 

Veneering, Decorative and Constructional — Veneers, Saw-Cut, Knife-Cut, Hand-Cut — 
Burrs — Curls — Feathers, &c. — Preparation — Laying — Finishing on Flat and Curved 
Surfaces — Treatment of Old Work — Marquetry — Buhl Work — Inlaying, Wood, 
Metal, Pearl, Ivory — Stringing — Banding— Parquetry — Intarsia. 

VENEERING is an old and decorative art. In the British Museum some 
examples of Egyptian work may be seen which are thousands of years old. 
From that day to this it has influenced the construction and design of house- 
hold furniture. In ancient Rome the choicest and costliest pieces of work were 
the tables veneered with rare woods. In Italy cabinets were veneered with 
tortoiseshell, ivory, and ebony, and inlaid with pearl and precious stones. In 
the Dutch and French work of a later period it reached an exalted place in 
furniture decoration, and in our own eighteenth century the masterpieces of 
Sheraton and Hepplewhite which are so much coveted to-day are a witness to 
the utility and decorative advantages to be found in veneering. To the ordinary 
householder the word " veneer " means to cover up cheap and shoddy work, or 
to make a whitewood cabinet look like a mahogany one. Hence the mistaken 
idea that all veneering is bad work. That such work is done must be admitted, 
and this makes it more difficult to convince the public that veneered work, when 
it is well and rightly done, and shows that it is veneer, is the best and most 
effective work for the following reasons : — I. It is the only way to use the rare 
woods such as " curls " in satinwood and mahogany, " burrs " in walnut or 
amboyna, and cross-grained but pretty wood which would only twist if used in 
the solid. 2. The extra layer of veneer tends to strengthen and preserve the 
wood upon which it is laid. This is best illustrated in the Queen Anne work, 
must of which is walnut veneered on oak, or yellow deal, which must have 
perished but for the veneer. 3. That veneering gives the only opportunity 
for flat decoration in furniture, by using the grain of the wood for designs in 
panels and on wide surfaces. 4. The process needs more care and thought in 
the selection of wood, its preparation, application, and finish, than ordinary 
"solid" work requires. These explanations are necessary because of the mis- 
understandings as to the right use of veneer, and the suspicions which naturally 
arise from them. 

Veneers are cut in two grades or thicknesses, which are known as " saw- 
cut " and "knife-cut." The first named are the thickest, and vary in thickness 
from ;i \. to ,',. in. They are cut from the log with a large circular saw, and 



Plate XXIII. 




Cabinet with Dutch Marquetry — Late Seventeenth Century. 
(The Properly of Eden Dickson, Esq.) 



[To face page 210. 



VENEERS AND VENEERING 211 

usually produce twelve or fourteen sheets to the inch. " Knife-cut " veneers 
are much thinner, and with the new machines it is possible to get from fifty to 
a hundred in the inch, the very thin ones being used as picture mounts. 
These are cut with rotary and flat knives. In the former the log is well steamed 
and fixed between two stocks (like a leg in a lathe), and directly under a knife 
its whole length. The log is then forced round, and on to the knife, which 
drops the required thickness at each revolution. By this process it is possible 
to get veneers almost any width, and by cutting spirally the grain is accentuated 
and enlarged as in the figured maples used for ships' cabins. The flat knife 
acts somewhat like a plane. The log is fixed on a rising table, and the blade 
works backwards and forwards, and takes a sheet off horizontally, the knife 
being parallel with the grain. Before the introduction of machinery veneers 
were cut by hand, and were usually | in. thick, which would allow of them being 
planed. 

Burrs are the excrescences, or warts, which grow on the outside of the tree 
trunk, and although a deformation (see chapter on " Timber "), they produce 
bea'utiful wood, and are very valuable. The best known are amboyna, Italian 
walnut, yew, elm, cherry, and ash. Burrs are sold in " parcels," and in single 
" leaves," both knife and saw cut. It is often possible to get good figure from 
the " butt " ends of a log ; these too are treated and used like the " burrs." 

" Curls " and " Feathers " are produced by the separation of the heart at 
the junction of a branch with the main trunk, and consequently are limited in 
length from 9 in. to 4 ft. They are usually confined to mahogany and satin- 
wood, and good ones always fetch high prices. 

The different " figures " or " mottles " in mahogany are known as " fiddle 
back," found chiefly on the outside edges of Honduras wood, running across the 
grain, and named from the similar figure in maple on the backs of violins. " Rain 
mottle," very like fiddle back, but with much longer mottlings. " Plum mottle," 
from dark elliptical marks in the wood at frequent intervals resembling the shape 
of a small plum. " Roe " is the name given to the showy dark flakes, which, 
when broken, give such a fine effect of light and shade. They run with the 
grain in a zigzag line, and though a similar figure is associated with East Indian 
satinwood the " roe " on mahogany is usually wider. " Stopped " or " broken " 
mottles are also found on the outside wood, and consist of flame-like marks 
and irregular figures of varying and spreading forms. West Indian satinwood 
is either "mottled" or "flowered" against the "roe" of East Indian. These 
names would apply to figures in all woods more or less, and they are found 
singly or together. "Stripe" is applied to good Italian walnut. "Streaky" 
to plain rosewood. " Blistered " to walnut and maple cut spirally to enlarge 
the figure. " Silver grain," " clash," or " felt," to the figure in oak, and " lacy," 
to the rays in plane, but names vary in different yards and localities. 

Preparation. — For all general purposes the best hard wood to veneer upon, 
called the "ground," is plain Honduras mahogany, principally because it warps 
and shrinks less than most woods. In soft timbers the best is American yellow 
pine, which also warps less and contains less resin than other pines. Whatever 
wood is used, it should be clean, dry, and as uniform in texture and straight in 
grain as possible. A very hard wood like ebony, rosewood, yew, or satinwood, 



212 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

should not be veneered on a soft wood like pine or basswood, as the ground is 
likely to absorb more than its share of the glue. Where light-coloured veneers 
are used, as oak, holly, maple, or satinwood, the glue should be whitened with 
flake white or bleached with oxalic acid. If this is not done there is a danger 
of the dark glue being forced into the veneer and showing through when cleaned 
off, thus spoiling the whole surface. In all veneering there is a danger from 
what is known as the " pull " or shrinkage in drying, which causes warping. The 
following methods are adopted to prevent this, and as they are all good, they 
should only be used where they apply best to the circumstances and the nature 
of the work to be done : — (i) Veneer on the heart side of the wood. If reference 
is made to the chapter on " Timber " (Shrinkage and Warpage), it will be seen 
that a board warps away from the heart, so that the "pull" of the veneer is 
somewhat balanced by this natural force. (2) When wide surfaces are to be 
covered, it is a good thing to cut the boards up the centre, and reverse the 
edges before rejointing, when the forces of contraction are fairly equalised. (3) 
A method adopted in France is that of cross-veneering, especially for panels 
which have a finished pattern on the face. Plane the panel perfectly flat, size 
both sides, and with " knife-cut " veneer it at right angles to the grain of the 
wood. This makes a " three-ply " or " lamination," and is generally successful, 
if the panel is kept flat when drying. (4) By mitre clamps, as in bureau flaps 
(see chapter on " Construction ") ; and (5) if the wood is dry and well chosen, sized 
on the face to prevent undue absorption of moisture, damped on the back, and 
kept flat when drying and until dry, it should keep flat. The reason for damp- 
ing the back is to equalise the pull or swelling of the fibres caused by sizing the 
face, and this effect of moisture and evaporation, or drying, is one of the most 
important things to watch and understand in veneered work. It is a good thing 
to shrink veneers between hot cauls, so tending to lessen the " pull." 

To prepare the wood, plane perfectly flat and true, and when dry fill 
in and level all holes. If the hole is a large one a similar piece of wood 
should be let in, diamond shaped, but a small hole can be 
filled in with plaster of Paris, or glue and sawdust. The 
surface should then be "toothed" with a "toothing plane," 
a small plane with single, upright blade, which is milled 
or grooved on the face, so that the edge has sawlike points 
(see sketch). In sharpening this plane, the "burr" must 
not be rubbed down as in a cutting blade. The tooth- 
ing should be done both up and down and across the board, 
and all over it. The surface should then be sized with a 
little thin glue, and when dry it may be necessary to slightly 
Toothing Iron. tooth it again as the sizing may have caused some irregu- 
larities to rise on the face. The veneer too may need tooth- 
ing to remove any rough surfaces left by the saw. A careful workman will 
examine both wood and veneer before laying. To cut thin veneers a sharp 
chisel and a straightedge are the best tools to use, but in the thicker or saw-cut 
sheets it is better to use a saw, either dovetail or tenon, or a veneer saw shown 
in f. 1, next page. When veneers are dry they buckle and split easily, and need 
very careful handling and cutting. 




VENEERS AND VENEERING 



213 



Laying. — Two methods are used: one with a "hammer" for knife-cut 
veneers, and the other with " cauls " under pressure for the thicker or " saw-cut " 
sheets. The hammer is usually home-made, of beech or ash, with a blade of 
rfr-in. steel let into the head, and pinned through as shown in f. 2 below. The 
edge of the blade should be rounded to prevent cutting. Other tools for 
hammer veneering are a hot flat iron and a " swab " or sponge. When every- 
thing is quite ready — glue, clean, hot, and fairly thin — cover the ground quickly 
with a large brush, and see that it is free from any little specks of grit ; then 
carefully lay the veneer on, flatting it with the hand, damp it with hot water, 
and pass the flat iron over rapidly without much pressure. Hold the hammer 
in the right hand, with the left pressing on the head, and starting in the centre 
work it backwards and forwards with a zigzag motion (f. 2) towards the 
outside edges, going over the whole surface quickly, and repeating the strokes 
from the centre until the air and surplus glue are forced out. To test the 
laying, tap the veneer with the fingers or hammer handle ; a hollow sound will 





1. Veneer Saw. 



2. Showing Use of Veneering Hammer. 



soon show any blisters or air spaces and if these occur, damp again and use the 
hot iron sparingly ; or lumps may appear where the glue has clogged, which the 
hot iron and hammer should disperse. Wipe off, and stand on one side to dry 
where the air can get round both sides, and hand-screw a clamp across to keep 
flat whilst drying. Blisters are sometimes found when the veneer is dry, and to 
get them down properly it will be necessary to prick or slit them to let the air 
out, then warm them with the iron and flatten with hammer. 

Saw-cut veneers cannot be laid with a hammer except in narrow strips 
such as cross-bandings. It is necessary to use wood or metal "cauls" under 
pressure either from hand-screws or veneer press. Wooden cauls are best made 
of mahogany or pine and out of i-in. stuff. In hand shops they are usually 
kept for this purpose, either flat or curved, and they need only be quite flat and 
hot when used. Metal cauls are usually of zinc plate, thin in curved work such 
as piano falls, and T :? F in. thick for flat surfaces. To lay a panel with hand- 
screwed cauls, get everything ready, caul quite hot, hand-screw set about right, 
thick pieces of stuff for clamps, and odd paper and veneer pins handy. Cover 
the ground with glue and let it set slightly, a precaution necessary to prevent the 



2i 4 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



veneer sliding and swelling too quickly, and doubly secure it by tapping pins 
into the edges or where the holes may not be seen afterwards, and do not turn 
the pins over unless on waste places ; cover the veneer with a layer of paper, 
and on the top of the paper a piece of green baize, and then lay the hot caul 

on round side downwards to ensure the 
glue being driven from the centre ; in no 
case should cauls be laid on with hollow 
side down. Lay the clamping pieces 
across and hand-screw down, fixing the 
centre ones first and the ends last. 
Clamps are only necessary for wide panels, 
as hand-screws can be used all round a small one. Clamps should be slightly 
round on the inside edge to ensure the centre of the panel being pressed first. 
Fig. i above shows a regular clamp with iron screws at each end. In large 
shops a veneer press is used where the clamps are part of a stand and the 




I. Veneer Clamp. 




3E- 



-ra: 



) c 




2. A Small Veneer Press. 






pressure is much greater ; whilst in many cases the press is combined with a 

hot table, either gas or steam, where the cauls are heated and the veneer laid 

in a very expeditious and effective manner. Two views of a small press are 

shown in f. 2. When paper is not used, metal cauls should be rubbed with soap 

to prevent sticking, and in large flat surfaces 

it is a good thing to have a layer of thick 

flannel or baize between the paper and the 

caul, as it helps to press into any little 

irregularities which the hard caul could not 

touch. 

In curved work it is always advisable 
to use a caul, even when laying knife-cut 
veneer, and when the curve is too difficult to 

test the fit of the wooden caul, sand-bags are used. These are easily made with 
strong calico, and should allow for at least an inch of sand at all points. They 
can be heated on the stove or hot plate, and it must be remembered that they 
retain the heat longer than the wood or metal cauls. Sand-bags, however, can 
only be used for hollow or serpentine surfaces. They should be laid in a box 



3. Sand-box for Curved Work. 



VENEERS AND VENEERING 



215 




1. A Saddle for Curved Work. 



made for the purpose, f. 3, previous page, and the veneered face gently fitted 
down to the sand before final pressure is put on, and the sand must not be too 
hot. The most practical thing to do in curved work, such as hollow, round, or 
ogee fronts, is to keep the waste outside piece from the sawmill (or reverse 
shape), and use it as a caul, or failing this, build up a bit of pine and have one 
cut. In large surfaces like cylinder "falls," the most effective method is by 
building up a " saddle" or double caul out of pine, as shown in f. 1 below, with 
a thin |-in. board which should easily warp to the curve, as a hot caul. This 
method takes a little longer in pre- 
paring the "saddle," but it is the best 
in the long run, as it ensures direct 
pressure all over the fall, or a sand- 
box can be used. The other method 
is to screw at least four ribs inside the 
fall, one at each end, and prepare 
similar ribs to fit the top. Warp a 
thin board for hot caul as near to the 
curve as possible, and the ribs can 

then be hand-screwed down one over the other — the more ribs the more likely 
a good job. 

Circular Pedestals are usually veneered with knife-cut, and a slightly 
curved hammer. This is not a difficult process if the veneer is flat, but the 
joint must overlap and be left for a time until the pedestal has partially dried, 
so as to reduce the shrinkage at the joint, which may be cut with chisel and 
straightedge and laid with a warm iron and hammer. The same method applies 
to a column, and if further pressure is needed as in laying saw-cut, bind it round 
with wide tape or webbing, which, if slightly damped, will 
draw taut and act as a caul. In work of this kind the out- 
side of the veneer should be covered with canvas to prevent 
fracture. 

Coves are usually made of thin stuff, and if veneered 
the board will warp nearly to the shape required, or it can 
be steamed to the curve and fixed to a saddle and then 
veneered. 

Flatting is often necessary when veneers are inclined 
to buckle, and is essential when using burrs, brown or 
pollard oak, or in fact any veneer which is " bumpy " and 
likely to be troublesome in laying. The best method is to 
damp the veneer and press it between hot cauls until dry, 
except in rosewood and satinwood, which are both oily woods and need not be 
damped. As a further precaution against "pulling," some men prefer to flatten 
and shrink all veneers between hot cauls before laying, and the less water used 
in all cases the better. 

End Grain Veneering is not a very safe process, but is sometimes neces- 
sary. The wood should be sized three or four times to close up the pores. 

Setting out and " Fixing " patterns in veneer is a job requiring skill and 
care. Suppose a flat design such as f. 2 above has to be prepared for veneering. 




Pattern in Veneer. 



216 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




I. Curved Corner 
in Bandings. 



Set it out carefully on a board, prepare template of one corner of the inside 
and outside shapes, and mark them out on the veneer where the grain is most 
suitable ; cut them out roughly with saw or chisel, then finish the curve, of 
inside pieces first, with marquetry saw and file, shoot the joints, lay it on board 
and fix it with three veneer pins driven partly home ; fit up other pieces to it, 
taking care that centre joints are in line ; then fit up outside pieces in a similar 
way, being careful that the grain is in the right direction. When complete, glue 
slips of paper over all the joints, tapping them down with 
a brush to escape the pin heads ; when dry draw out pins, 
and the panel should be ready to lay. If a line has to be 
taken round the diamond shape, it should be laid up to the 
curve, slightly glued at joint and held in place by pins 
driven outside at intervals, and then gently bent over 
towards the inside ; when set, the pins are removed and 
the outside pieces fitted up to the line. The above process 
has to be changed for light-coloured veneers, as satinwood, 
in which the pin holes would show badly. To escape this 
the pieces are laid on paper with just a little glue near 
the edges to fix them, the paper, strong cartridge, being 
stretched on the board by damping it and glueing the 
edges. The paper slips over the joints are not necessary 
in this case, as the top side of the veneer is laid on to the 
paper. Where pins are at all likely to injure the veneer 
this paper method should be used, but it is a safe one for all ; and where veneer 
is very brittle and the grain short in the design, it is safer to back it with 
paper before cutting out shapes, and if a fret saw is used, back it also with 
a piece of xV-in. stuff. For curved shapes the pattern is developed (see 
Chapter X.) on the flat and fixed as above, but a thin layer of glue should be 
put between the veneer and paper to prevent the 
former splitting when laid on. 

Cross-Banding can be laid with the hammer ; 
a slight damping will swell the outside fibres, and 
prevent the ends cocking up through the same 
action by the glue on the inside. Thin slips of 
paper should be laid over all the joints to prevent 
the air getting in, and to hold the band up to the 
joint when drying. The cross-band round a panel 
end or drawer front can be laid at one time if done 
in this way. Fig. I above shows a curved corner 
for a panel, and how to match the mitres. 

Herring-Bone patterns are usually applied to Queen Anne Italian walnut 
work, on drawer fronts, ends, and frames. It should be done with good striped 
wood, or it fails in its purpose. Fig. 2 shows a part of a drawer front with 
herring-bone banding. The strips are carefully cut obliquely across the sheet 
with straightedge and chisel, or on the edge of a board with a cutting gauge, 
shot with an iron plane, and laid with the " hammer," or the pane end of an 
ordinary hammer, the inside strip first, all round, and the outside one laid up 




2. Herring-Bone Veneering. 



VENEERS AND VENEERING 



217 



to it, care being taken that the grain matches ; or the pattern can be built up 
on paper and laid altogether, centre and bands as well. Joints are made in 
the middle and the grain reversed. Paper should be laid over all joints as 
previously explained. Cocked beads are usual on such drawer fronts. 

Cleaning - Off and Finishing. — It is most important that no veneered work 
of any kind should be cleaned off until quite dry, or it will tear up or blister 
in the cleaning. If there is any paper to remove it can be toothed off with the 
fine toother, or a little warm water and a sponge, but the less water used the 
better ; the rest of the work must be done with the scraper, and very carefully 
too, or it may easily work through. In a panel where the grain goes in different 
directions, the scraping should be done with it, as well as the papering to follow ; 
and where there is other work to do to the job, as in a table, the final clean off 
should be left to the last. The veneered portions which are left loose for a time 
should be watched in case of casting or warping, which may occur in the best 
executed work owing to changes of atmosphere or the natural working of the 
wood. To prevent this, keep the work hand-screwed down between clamps, and 
out of draught, heat, or damp. 

Old work requires special treatment, and it would be absurd to lay down 
any fixed rules for it. But there 
are a few instances in which some 
general hints may be useful, and as 
such these are given. As a rule 
veneer on old work is fairly thick 
and can be toothed or even planed. 
Where there is a blister it is a 
sign that the glue has perished, 
and it may be possible to cut a 
slit and insert fresh glue, and then 

press down with a hot caul. But if this is on a top it will leave a bad mark 
where the slit was cut, or holes, if the veneer had been pricked. In this case 
it would be better to find a new or old piece of stuff, if possible, as near to 
the grain and colour as could be, and cut it in diamond shape, as in sketch 
above. If the grain is wavy the joint should be made to fit it, especially 
in burrs or pollard woods, in which irregular shapes should be let in, but in 
all cases square pieces or butt joints look very bad. The same hints apply 
to a bruise or fracture, either in the veneer or solid wood. It sometimes 
happens that an old top has to be completely stripped off, and this may be 
done by damping and a hot flat iron rubbed over the surface a few times. If 
the veneer has to be preserved it can be raised carefully by inserting a thin- 
bladed knife underneath, a palette knife being well suited for the job. The 
pieces of veneer should be carefully laid on a board in preparation for the 
restoring process, which would be similar to fitting up a panel, but the old glue 
would have to be removed by repeated work with sponge and toothing iron, and 
the veneer well flatted before any restoring could be done. 

Stringing and Banding.— Strings are thin lengths, ranging from "hair 
lines," which are not much thicker than drawing paper, up to 1 in. square. They 
are prepared and sold in 3 -ft. lengths, at a few pence per dozen, according to 




Joints in Veneers. 



2l8 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



l^g~a^M § [ IBMB J 



i mihMM 




i. Types of Bandings. 



size, and are stocked in black, white, box, and purple, but any kind can be cut 
to order. The bandings are sold in similar lengths up to i in. in width. They 

vary in design, of which a few are shown in 
f. i alongside. It has already been explained 
how to lay lines or strings, in a veneered 
pattern, and this applies to any shape, 
straight, circular, or elliptic, but where lines 
have to be inlaid into a plain or solid panel, 
other methods are used. Where special 
shapes such as " ovals " or ogee corners and 
curved lines are to be inlaid, it is done with a 
template, and the groove to take the line is 
routed out against the edge of template by 
the tang end of a file, or a bradawl, the end 
of which has been filed square to take the 
required line. In circles or lines which are 
parts of such, a small block of h-in. stuff can 
be glued on to the panel, with paper under- 
neath for easy removal, and a hole bored in it to take an ordinary dowel. A 
strip of i-in. stuff about I in. wide can be used for the arm, and bored about 
2 in. from the end to drop over the 
dowel in the block. At the other 
end the piece of steel for routing 
can be driven through at required 
distance, and with one hand on the 
dowel end, and the right hand guid- 
ing the steel, the groove is easily 
worked. Fig. 2 on this page shows 
the arrangement which is easily 
adapted to such work. For all 
straight work, where there is an 
edge to work from, a " scratch stock " 
is used, f. 3 below. This is a little 

home-made tool which is useful in many ways, as in scratching flutes and 
mouldings. Its make has already been described in Chapter III., and it can 

take a cutter from a hair- 
line thickness up to I \ in. 
A more elaborate one can 
be made with rounded 
handles at each end, but 
this one, known as the 
" revolver " stock, answers 
the purpose extremely well. 
Fig. i, next page, shows one 
with a movable fence and butterfly screw. When the routing is done the lines 
are touched with thin glue, and pressed into the groove by the end of an 
ordinary hammer. The same tool is used for routing in the wider bands. The 




Router for Curved Lines. 




A Scratch Stock. 



VENEERS AND VENEERING 



219 



edge of the cutter is best kept square like a scraper, and in using the stock, 

somewhat like a gauge, only with both hands, the worker must be careful to 

keep it tight up to the edge, and hold it firmly to prevent wobbling. 

For cross routing a 

" double cutter " should 

be used. This is made 

by leaving a small 

"knife" on each edge of 

the blade, and if used 

first it prevents the edge 

from being frayed. Lines 

and bands should not be 

cleaned off until quite 

dry, or they will sink 

below the surface as the glue beneath them sets and contracts. 

Square lines are used for edges round table tops, &c, and are simply laid 
in a rebate on the corner. Special devices are resorted to for holding them 




1. Scratch Stock with Movable Fence. 




2. Method of Lacing an Edge to a Table Top. 

whilst drying. If on the edge of a door frame, they can be bound round with 
tape, but for the edge of an oval, or any shaped table, the following method is 
practised, f. 2 above. Drive some screws into a piece of stuff about 2 in. apart 

and \ in. out of the wood, and 
on the underside of the top 
drive other screws about 2 in. 
from the edge and also 2 in. 
apart. Hand-screw the piece of 
stuff down to the top about 4 in. 
from the edge, and with plenty 
3. Building up Bandings. of tape the edge line can be 

bound on from screw to screw, 
and laced up effectually whilst drying. Lines can be steamed and bent to 
almost any curve by gradually bending them on a piece of hot gas pipe, keeping 
them well damped in the process. This applies chiefly to the thicker and 




22o MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

square edges rather than to the thin lines which will, as a rule, bend quite easily 
round a circle. Sometimes, in repairing, a few feet of banding has to be made 
up by the cabinetmaker. Fig. 3, p. 219, shows how to build it up. A few 
strips of cross-grained ebony and satinwood are carefully jointed and glued up 

alternately, and if a line 
is wanted on each side 
the faces can be prepared 
when dry and veneered 
with a caul, the grain 
going in the same direc- 
tion as the ground. 



^11 




.1. Box for Inlaying Lines in a Tapered Leg. 



When dry the bands can be cut off the edge, and are ready to inlay. Or if a 
plain cross band is wanted, cut a piece the required thickness off the end of 
a 2-in. board, and lay the veneer on the end grain faces. An endless variety of 
bands can be obtained in this way in any woods, thickness, or width. The old 





m 







O 


•w 


j. 


=i'lt 


~ H I~' fTTT 1* 


m 


fftH#S# 




2. A Line Gauge. 

Tunbridge work, so much used on workboxes and desks, was built up in a 
similar way. Fig. 1 above shows a box for inlaying lines in tapered column. 
Made out of I -in. stuff, it can be fitted with a screw as shown. A screw 
through the other end should suffice to fix the column, and the line is routed 
from the outside edge of box. 

String Gauge (f. 2). — This is a very useful home- 
made tool for gauging strings, especially when they 
have to be cut by hand. The top curved part moves 
freely in a dovetail groove, and is stopped by the ad- 
justable plate shown in f. 3, which also gives a view 
showing a thin brass lever, which keeps the string 
down whilst being pulled through. The knife is fixed 
with a screw in a saw kerf, and has a bevel on the 
edge like a chisel. To use the gauge, fix it in bench 
screw by the block shown underneath, adjust the plate 
to the required thickness of string, lay string in and 
drop the lever, push the top of gauge towards the 

knife with left hand, and pull string with the right. It may take two or more 
pulls through the gauge before the string is cut to desired thickness. The thin 
plate on the end of the stock is necessary to keep the sliding top from moving 
out. The diagram is about half size. 




<D O <D 


==r. 


mm 


CJil(J> 


CD 



1 • ' 



Parts of Line Gauge. 



MARQUETRY AND INLAYING 



Marquetry was developed in France during the eighteenth century, and 
chiefly through the reign of Louis XVI. The word means to " mark," to 
" impress," to " cut into," and the process, which was made possible by the 
introduction of veneers, is as follows : — A tracing of the design is glued on to the 
sheet of veneer which is to form the ground, and other veneers to form the design 
are glued on the back with paper between them. They are then cut on what is 
known as a " donkey " (see below), which is a stool with a frame fixed at the 
end, on which the saw runs horizontally, and to which is also attached an up- 
right clamp, something like a harness maker's, worked by a treadle. The cutter 
sits astride the stool, holds the veneers in the clamp, and moves them about with 
his left hand, whilst he works the saw with the right. The saw frame can be 
adjusted so as to cut on the slope and ensure a good fit. Marquetry cutters 
are generally men who do nothing else, thus becoming highly skilful in the 
work, and as a rule they make their 
own saws, which are extremely fine, 
out of clock spring steel. When 
the cutting is done, the design is 
laid out on a board, and the pieces 
shaded where required. This shad- 
ing, which is really scorching, is 
done by dipping the veneer into 
hot sand, and when completed the 
whole design is glued down on 
to paper, and handed over to 
the cabinetmaker to lay. If any 
engraving is required, it is done 
when the marquetry is cleaned off. 
Veneers are now stained all 
colours, so that it is possible to 
obtain very naturalistic effects in 
a flower design. The Marie An- 
toinette toilet bureau in the Jones 
Collection at South Kensington, 

shown on Plate XXVIII., is decorated with this process. The Dutch were also 
famous marquetry cutters, and the fine Stuart cabinet, Plate XX., is a 
noted example, together with the clock case, Plate XXL, both probably 
made in England. The fans, shells, &c, which were a common feature on 
second-rate furniture a few years ago, and are still used, are cut and shaded 
in the manner described above. For further reference to marquetry work see 
chapter on " Styles." 

Buhl Work. — This was invented by Andre Boulle, a noted Frenchman who 
became famous as a cabinetmaker in the reign of Louis XV. (see chapter on 
" Styles "), and " buhl," as it is spelt in England, was named after him. It is really 
the inlaying of metal into tortoiseshell firstly, and when this became scarce, into 
wood or composition which passed as tortoiseshell. He used brass and silver 
chiefly, which was afterwards engraved. The cutting was similar to marquetry, 
and Plate XXIV., p. 222, shows a wardrobe in the Jones Collection by Boulle. 




Using a Marquetry Cutter's "Donkey." 



222 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



The work was continued by an artist named Berain, and the later work was so 
arranged to save material that the ground furnished another design, a device 
known as " boule " and " counter boule." This inlaying in metal has never found 
much favour in England, but metal was used by some of the eighteenth-century 
designers, amongst them Sheraton. When brass lines or bands have to be inlaid 
Salisbury glue should be used, or the glue should be mixed with plaster of 
Paris. Files and emery cloth are used to clean off metal inlay, finishing with a 

little oil and pumice powder. 

Inlaying differs from marquetry from 
the fact of its being applied to solid work 
into which pieces are inlaid. It was largely 
used on furniture in the Jacobean period, and 
the illustration on this page shows a panel of 
holly in oak from the Inlaid Room of Sizergh 
Castle, Westmorland, date about 1600, now 
in the Victoria and Albert Museum. In 
inlaying proper the pieces are cut out, laid 
on, and marked round, and then holes cut 
to receive them. The edges of the pieces 
for inlaying should be slightly bevelled to 
make sure of a good joint, and the bottom 
of the hole pricked to make keys for the 
glue. Chess squares are sometimes inlaid 
into a solid piece, or "overlaid," a term used 
when the layer is thicker than veneer, with 
the squares which have been glued up in 
nine strips, and cross cut again, and then 
laid on the ground in the usual way, with 
a caul, the odd strip allowing for the alter- 
nate square at each cut. 

Mother -of- Pearl is used largely in 
veneering and inlaying on such things as 
clock cases, mirror frames, caskets, and small 
cabinets. It can be bought prepared for use 
from 10s. to 15s. per lb. in pieces from 1 to 
2 in. broad in irregular shapes and about a 
thin -, 1 ,. in. thick. The qualities are " snail," 
which is the ordinary shell ; " Japanese," wavy and varying in colour, and "blue," 
or " green," or " pink," which are the most expensive, and obtained in smaller 
pieces. Pearl can be cut with a very fine saw, or filed to any shape, but where 
the shape is thin or delicate, it should be backed up on stiff veneer with paper 
between, before the cutting is done. When inlaying, the underside of the pearl 
should be roughened with a file, and the ground pricked to give a better "hold 
for the glue. Owing to its brittle nature it will not bear much pressure, and 
the weight of a flat iron or iron plane should be sufficient. When a caul and 
hand-screw are used there is a danger of breaking the pearl without knowing it, 
as its underside is often hollow, A little plaster of Paris should be mixed with 




Inlaid Holly and Bog Oak Panelling 
from Sizergh Castle in the Room 
at the Victoria and Albert Museum. 



Plate XXIV. 




Buhl Wardrobe from the Jones Collection, 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 



Dutch Marquetry 
Clock. 



[To face page 222. 



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MARQUETRY AND INLAYING 223 

the glue, which should be used quite hot. The face side is usually polished, so 
that if carefully inlaid it should need but little cleaning off. Where this is 
necessary use a scraper, or a fine file, then rub down with flour paper, 
and finish with pumice powder and rottenstone. To prevent the pearl powder 
penetrating the wood, first give it a rubber of light polish, which can be easily 
removed at the final clear off. It is often necessary to cut a line design into 
the surface of pearl, which resists the engraver's tool, and this is done by 
covering the surface with a thin coat of beeswax brushed on warm. The design 
is then scratched through the wax down to the pearl, and nitric acid poured 
into the scratchings. In the course of an hour the acid will have burnt away 
the pearl, and after a good washing in water the wax can be cleaned off, and 
the mastic run in the lines to complete the design. 

Ivory is another rare material used for inlaying. It is obtained in fairly 
large pieces, 12 to 14 in. long, and 4 to 5 in. wide, and a good veneer thickness 
or in lines and solid squares. It can be cut in a similar way to pearl, and 
inlaid with a caul. The underside should be toothed, and the ground pricked 
as in pearl. For cleaning off, scrape or file and finish with fine paper and 
pumice powder, the polishing being done with a buff rubber and whiting. 
Ivory can be made flexible by soaking it in pure phosphoric acid until it has 
ceased to be opaque. It must then be washed in cold water, and dried with 
a clean, soft rag, and if it again becomes too hard to bend, a soaking in hot 
water will produce flexibility again. The cheap substitutes for ivory are ivorine, 
bone, and celluloid. 

Tortoiseshell is a rarer material than pearl or ivory. It can be cut and 
inlaid in a similar way to pearl, and cleaned off by scraping and papering, and 
is polished with dry whiting or rottenstone. A composition to imitate tortoise- 
shell, with red-coloured background, was introduced into the later buhl work, 
but it was far from being successful. 

Parquetry is the geometric veneered work found on Louis XV. and XVI. 
work (see table on p. 117), composed largely of diapers of the same wood. It 
is well adapted for small things, such as clock cases or caskets, and is built up 
on paper as explained in the satinwood veneering, and laid with a caul. 

Intarsia is a name given to the early inlaying originating in Italy in the 
fourteenth century, when realistic perspective effects were obtained with veneers 
which were laid on piece by piece. It may be called " pictorial " inlaying, and 
much of it has been recently done in the " New Art " Continental Work, illus- 
trated in the examples in Bethnal Green Museum, although it has not affected 
the cabinet trade generally. Its success depends upon the selection of the grain 
and colours of the wood, and in recent years the Gold Medal in the National 
Competition has been granted for work of this character. Some remarkable 
and beautiful effects are obtained when combined with good colour and 
design. 

Overlay Work. — This is a type of veneering done with stuff which was thick 
enough to mould, or the term would be applied to any material which was laid over 
another. The famous examples are those of the Italian and Dutch periods when 
ebony and ivory were lavishly used. " Facing up " is a workshop term applied 
to it when thin solid stuff is used as against the thinner veneer. The cabinet 



224 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

on Plate XXV. is a fine example of seventeenth-century Dutch overlay work in 
ivory. It is reproduced by permission of the Earl of Uysart, and is in that 
nobleman's fine collection at Ham House. The " waved " surface and mouldings 
are a special feature of Dutch work in the seventeenth century, found on frames, 
chests, and cabinets, but ivory is the exception owing to its cost and rarity. 
The " waves " vary in design and give a pleasing effect of light and shade. 
They were made by a hand machine, which causes the waves to be slightly 
irregular in shape. A full description of the machine may be found in a French 
book, by A. J. Roubo, dated 1769, to be seen in the library at South Kensington. 
These mouldings are still made in various sizes and " waves," but stained syca- 
more is used in place of ebony. They cost about 3d. per foot and upwards 
from J in. to 1 in., and, as a rule, can be obtained at any of the good veneer 
merchants, who also supply pearl, tortoiseshell, strings, bands, and other materials 
for inlay, overlay, marquetry, and veneering. 

Oyster Shell Veneering - . — This name is given to the type of veneering 
found on old Dutch cabinets. The veneers have been cut transversely from 
branches of lignum vitae, or laburnum wood, so that the markings of the rings 
give an oyster shell appearance, hence the name. The joints between the pieces 
are usually square, and the pattern is built up by the methods already described, 
viz., pinning to the ground and glueing paper over the joints, or glueing each piece 
to paper. Cleaning off requires great care, and a circular motion to the rubber. 
The inside of the doors on the cabinet (Plate XXIII.) are good examples of 
oyster shell work. For other illustrations of pattern building in veneer, see 
pages 104, 130, 145, 155, 160, 175, 176, 181, 189, 190, 192, 205, 206. 



CHAPTER X. 

FOREMEN'S WORK— PRACTICAL SETTING OUT AND 
APPLIED GEOMETRY. 

Foremen's Duties, Definition of — Working Drawings — Description of Rods — Purpose 
of Working Drawings and Rods — Method of Preparing same — Elevation, Section, 
&c. — Specimen Rods — Preparing Curve Templates, and Application of — Moulding 
Sections for Machine — Turning and Fretwork Details — Cutting Lists — Necessity for 
Method of Preparation and Checking — Duplicate Lists — Allowances for Cutting 
— Taking Measurements and Templates — Development of Room — Measuring Angles, 
&c. — Taking Details of Existing Work — Strapwork, Posts, &c. — Squeezing Wax for 
Carvings, Recipe for — Method of Using — Casting in Plaster — Flat Relief Work — 
Supervision in Workshop — Requisitions — Time-sheets, &c. — Specimen Requisi- 
tion—Equipment of Drawing Office — Draughtsmen's Table — Sizes of same- 
Accommodation — Storage of Rods — Marking Rods — Roll Paper — Wall Roller for 
same — Instruments — Estimating, Methods of — Specifications — Special Clauses — 
Specimen Estimate in Detail — Applied Geometry — Reduction and Enlargement 
of Mouldings — Proportionate Reduction — Drawing Entasis of Column — Spacing of 
Flutes and Fillets — Reduction and Enlargement of Mouldings — Alternate Method — 
Intersection of Bracket Mouldings — Intersection of Raking and Curved Mouldings 
— Necessity for Curved Mitre — Joining in a Straight Mitre Line — Intersection of 
Raking Mouldings on Pediments and Overdoors — Gothic Arches — Method of 
Drawing same — Names and Terms applied to ditto — Combinations — Geometry 
of Gothic Detail — Foliation, &c. — Trefoiling — Cusping — Quatrefoiling, &c. — 
Chippendale Cluster Columns — Development of Curved Surfaces — Method of 
Measuring Curved Lines — Development of Pillar or Vase-Shape for Marquetry — 
Necessity for Development — Method of Developing Splayed Veneers — Octagonal 
Pillar Shape — Development of Marquetried Knife Case — Veneering same — 
Method of Developing — Allowance for Curvature and Bending — True Shape of 
Flutes — Preparing Zinc Templates — Veneering with Sand-bags — Hopper Develop- 
ment — Application to a Wine Cooler — Obtaining Bevels — Making the Carcase — 
Dovetailing and Keying same — Working the Mouldings and Rebates — Other 
Methods — Elliptical Doors — Method of Projection and Development — Preparing 
the Stuff — Obtaining Segments and Bevels — Necessary Templates — Marking out the 
Material — Fitting together — Glueing up — Circular Dome — Drawing the Ribs — 
Rebate Line in Crown — Construction of Bed Frame — Sections of the Mouldings — 
Mitre Intersection — Securing the Panels. 



15 



226 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



Setting out, and Foremen's Work. 

The duties of foremen differ according to the size of a firm and the class of 
work done, but foremen's work in its broadest sense is very comprehensive, and 
embraces the practice of the various branches of setting out, estimating, super- 
vision, and organisation. In large firms where there are several shops, 
each controlled by a foreman, the duties are more limited in character, and 
consist chiefly of issuing the job orders, drawings, and cutting lists, and in 
generally supervising the production of the work. All setting out, full sizing, 
estimating, &c, is then conducted by draughtsmen in the drawing office of 
the works. Under these circumstances, individual foremen's work will naturally 
vary, but in shops of a comparatively small size, the foreman will estimate, 
set out, keep time-sheets, prepare orders for fittings and generally supervise 
the work in its progress, from the perspective sketch or design to the actual 
completion of the job. 

Working Drawings are really full-size representations on paper of the 
object required to be made, and consist usually of the elevation, plan, and section 
arranged in such positions as to occupy the smallest space consistent with 
the workman's ability to read them. In nearly every instance these working 
drawings are made full size ; scale drawings tend to confuse the workman in 
transferring to full measurements ; and again, a slight error may creep into 
the scale drawing which would be considerably magnified when made up full 
size. A rod is a thin board upon which is set out the plans and sections 
of certain repetition work, panelling for example, which does not demand 
fully drawn elevations. These rods are usually made of |-in. pine planed 
smooth on both sides with the edges shot perfectly straight. 

Purpose of Working Drawings and Rods. — They convey to the work- 
man all the necessary information concerning the work in hand, and they should 
indicate clearly all the measurements, true curves for shaping, details of turning, 
fretting, carving, inlaying, &c, and also the construction. Many points have 
to be considered in setting out the drawings and rods. Economical and effective 
construction, properly proportioned moulding sections ; a sympathetic interpreta- 
tion of the designer's suggestions as expressed in the scale drawing; facility in 
separating if necessary for transport, and suitability of the work to a specified 
purpose. A half front elevation is usually sufficient on the working drawing, 
and a " section " showing the arrangement of the various pieces, portions for 
dovetailing, &c, is superimposed on the first view. This section is really a view 
of the interior parts where the job is divided by a vertical cutting plane, an 
outline of blue pencil serving to distinguish this view from the elevation. Where 
the work is shaped in plan, such as a serpentine front sideboard, a " sectional 
plan " also is required, which is again superimposed on the drawing and outlined 
with red pencil. A comprehensive study of the illustrations in the chapter on 
" Carcase and Table Work " will indicate to the reader suitable positions Re- 
determining the sections and elevations. 



FOREMEN'S WORK AND PRACTICAL SETTING OUT 



227 



LIBRARY- 

MS 589- 
2, RODS- 



FULL-'WDTH 
SF-T5P-B4KP 
— I' 3f£ 







nci. 



FIG. 2. 



PfeNELLlNG 




Preparation of Rods. — Specimen rods are shown illustrating the setting 
out of a library bookcase and 
panelling respectively, f. 1 and 2 
alongside. The bookcase is set 
out as follows : — Mark thin lines 
indicating the total height of 
job and the heights from floor 
line of the plinth, table top, 
frieze, cornice, &c. ; use a thumb 
gauge off one edge to pencil 
perpendiculars between these 
divisions for the line of doors, 
frieze, back, &c, draw in the 
moulding sections, detail of 
drawer dovetails, section of door 
rails, width of back framing, &c. 
The whole section of the job 
cannot be shown on an 11 -in. 
board, so wave lines are drawn 
right through the section and 
the true over-all width is marked 
on the rod. Complete the 
setting out by lining in with an 
H.B. pencil. Sectional plans 
are shown in a separate rod, 
f. 2, as described above, showing 
position of ends, divisions, and 
doors, and also showing con- 
structive detail such as the 
dust-proof beads and details of 
shutting stiles, rebated ends for 
back, &c, that do not occur in 
the section. Fig. 3 is a speci- 
men rod of panelling, showing 
sectional view of plan and side 
elevation. 

Preparing Curved Tem- 
plates. — Upon completion of 
the drawings or rods, the tem- 
plates necessary for marking 
shapes on the wood are next 
prepared. These apply to 
shaped brackets, curved rails, 
mouldings, and segmental tem- 
plates requisite for building up 
curved ends or drawer fronts. Quarter-inch whitewood is used, and the shapes 




FIG. 3. 



Specimen Rods of Bookcase and Panelling. 



228 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



OAK- B^eKCAS^- 




A 



MQSS5>- 



e>rtR<M°LD 

•40' RUN-- 
B&SDS-llfoFT. 



\ 



are transferred to this by placing the thin wood under the drawing and in 
pricking points at intervals along the curve ; these points on the template stuff 
are then joined up with pencil lines and the template cut to shape. 

Moulding Sections are then prepared for use in the machine shop. The true 

outlines are marked upon tracing paper, 
with the required run in length of each 
section marked also, see f. I. alongside. 
Turning or Fretwork Details are 
also traced off ready for the machinist's 
use. Such systematic procedure is always 
advisable, and is conducive to economical 
production and smooth progress through 
the various shops. 

Cutting Lists are lists of material 
giving particulars of each piece required 
for making the job. They are prepared 
as in the specimen opposite, and bound in 
book form with perforated edges to tear 
away easily. Thin paper is interleaved and 
carbon paper is inserted when making the 
entries, which makes a duplicate list for 
office reference. About fifty items are 
entered upon one sheet, and each piece 
is numbered on the working drawing to 
correspond with the numbers contained 
in the first column. Allowances for 
length, and A- in. for width. See also 



FRIEZE-MOLD 12 STILES-^IND 

Jg-R^N ReUS.TO-TH.5. 



S b 



■\ZZJ 



unins-up- 

2.-TJDTHI5-- 



z 



"PUNTH-ri LP 
2 To This- • 



£?* 



R4 tNE L • MOLD - 
2b FEET-RUN- 



i. View showing Arrangement of Sections 
on Tracing Paper. 



cutting are usually h in. extra in 
chapter on " Workshop Practice." 
Taking Measurements and 



Templates. — When work of a special 



icA5i)<r---ZG- >ic3l£-> 



<--5'6'f> 

gjs 

-fr 



<3'fo"» 



89° A 

\ 



<^.'6"-» 



Bo 11S ,-M-H 



?'-- zs ior- 



piAN • MEASUREMENTS- 
AH,E'ON*fLOOe.»UNE.» f .' 



I 



^ 



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9' 



PLEASE* NOTE -THAT- 
l-1EASUB.EMe.NTS • 
AR.E- INCOMpLETE • 



#V£ 20'Si" 



^AJ 



2. View showing Development of Room with Measurements and Angles. 



s'iis 



character is to be executed, involving specific measurements, such as fireplaces, 
fitted corners, window seats, panelling, &c, preparatory sizes must be obtained 
before the work is set out. A scale development of the room is prepared (see 
f. 2 above), with actual measurements figured in. All angles and corners should 



FOREMEN'S WORK AND PRACTICAL SETTING OUT 



229 



Cutting List. 



No. 837. 
Job — Satinwood Wardrobe. 
Customer — H. J. Smith, Esq. 



Sheet A. 
Order No. — ^326. 
Date — Jan. 3, 1909. 



No. 

1 


For 


Length. 


Width. 


Thickness. 


No. of. 


Wood. 


Remarks. 


Large Carcase. 


Ft. 


In. 


In. 


Inches. 








2 


Carcase ends 


4 


io| 


2o| 


7 
8 


2 


Hond. Mahog. 


\ 


3 

4 


„ top 

„ btm. - 


4 
4 






19 

2oJ 


5 

8 

5 
8 


I 

I 




V, Faced with 
I satinwood. 


5 


,, division 


3 


Hi 


2o| 


7 
8 


I 


>> )> 


) 


6 

7 


Upright 
False ends 



3 


9i 

1 1 


iS 

18 


7 
8 

7 
8 


I 

2 




Clamped front. 


8 


„ end facings 


3 


1 1 


2 


7 
8 


2 


» )> 




9 


Shelf 


3 


iof 


18} 


7 
8 


I 


>) ■>■> 




10 


Large Carcase 
Back. 
















1 1 
12 
13 


Stiles 

Top rail - 
Btm. „ - 


4 
3 
3 


1 of 

9* 
9* 


4f 

12.1 


5 

8 

5 
8 

5 

8 


2 
I 
I 


11 >) 


All wood to 
be well seasoned, 
free from knots, 
and suitable for 


14 


Cross „ 


3 


9i 


3 


8" 


I 


>> >j 


veneering upon. 


15 


Munting - 


3 


10 


3 


5 

8 


I 


>> >) 




16 


Panels 


T 


\o\ 


19I 


1 


4 


)> >> 




i7 


Doors. 
















1 8 


Hanging stiles - 


3 


1 


4 


*i 


2 


Cuba Mahog. 




J 9 


Shutting „ 


3 


1 


*i 


)) 


2 


)> 11 




20 


Top and btm. rails - 


1 


9l 


»* 


5) 


4 


11 11 




21 


Cross rails 


1 


9l 


*i 


!) 


2 


»> )) 




22 


Top panel 


1 


7f 


n£ 


5 

8 


2 


)> 5? 




2 3 


Btm. „ 


2 


8 


19? 


5 
8 

1 


2 


j> n 





Remainder of fifty items filled in as above on Sheet A. Next fifty items on Sheet B. 



2 3 o MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



* 1 


' ^V^ /'' 






ll 




/y 






t> / 



View showing a Prepared Template 
for Angles. 



be carefully measured, and the angles 
subtended by wall lines and floor lines 
indicated in the development by degrees 
or figured triangles, see A and B. Rough 
templates are prepared, in some cases, 
made of k -in. pine, and scribed to the wall 
or floor lines (see sketch). These are 
screwed together whilst in actual posi- 
tion, and are marked as shown at the 
joints. If the work is to be executed 
at any great distance from the draw- 
ing office, the pieces may be unscrewed 
and packed in a bundle. They may then 
be readily screwed together again in 



the drawing office, and the work set out upon them. 

Requisition for Brasswork. 

Job — Satinwood Wardrobe. 
Customer — H. J. Smith, Esq 



Order No. — ^326. 
Date— Jan. 3, 1909. 



Please sitpply- 



Two brass wardrobe locks and catches with drop handles, § inch 

to pin, two-lever, one each right and left hand 
Four 2 1 -inch brass till locks, two-lever, § inch to pin 
. One pair brass centre hinges, 3 inches long 
Three pairs 2|-inch brass butts 
One pair 6-inch wardrobe-door stay 
Four pairs brass swivel coat hooks 
Six pairs brass hat and coat hooks 
One pair brass flush bolt, 6 inches long - 

3 inches long 
Six pairs drop drawer handles 

All the above fittings, with screws for same, to be silvered and 
oxidised - - - 

{Signed) 



Approximate Cost 
as per Estimate. 

£ s. d. 



l 2 

8 
o 
6 
3 

7 
o 



Foreman. 



Taking Details. — Existing carving or recessing, when required to be dupli- 
cated, should be cast in plaster and forwarded as specimens. Squeezing wax 
recipe, as follows, viz. : — Suet, 1 part ; bees' wax, 2 parts, or wax, 5 parts ; olive 
oil, 1 part, or wax, 4 parts ; common turpentine, 1 part. The ingredients only 
need melting together and allowed to cool. If stiffening is required add a 
little flour. The wax is then fit for use and should be well pressed into the 
interstices of the work, and then carefully removed. A counter-impression 
of the original will thus be formed in wax, into which plaster of Paris and 
water, mixed to a cream-like consistency, is poured. Experience will soon 



FOREMEN'S WORK AND PRACTICAL SETTING OUT 



231 



determine the best thickness for properly running into the finer parts of the 
mould. When the plaster is set quite hard, the wax is drawn away, and the 
plaster representation of the decoration will remain. 

Details of Flat Relief Work or frets can be obtained by placing thin paper 
over them, and in rubbing the paper with heelball. If carefully done the pattern 



-idc*. 



3'tf- 




1. View of a Draughtsman's Table for Full Size Drawings. 

will show in black and white masses ; these are termed " rubbings." This 
method is a very handy one, and the rubbings are not only accurate but 
permanent. 

Equipment of Drawing Office. — Fig. 1. above illustrates a draughtsman's 
table suitable for large working drawings ; the height should be about 3 ft. A 
firm top made of i]-in. yellow pine with ebony slips on each edge, securely 
buttoned to the fram- 
ing, is most suitable. 
The front is fitted 
with a cupboard and 
drawers for storage of 
books, instruments, 
&c, and trays for im- 
perial size design 
sheets. Iron brackets 
are screwed to the 
back for supporting 
rod boards, and a 
space at the end is 
also utilised for rolled 
drawings. Slips of 
wood about 1 by ^ in. 
should be glued at 
each end of rolled 
drawings to prevent 
tearing during the frequent rolling they are subjected to in the workshop. 
Rods are labelled with the description and order number on the board or on a 
wooden tag attached to one end, and are stored in wooden racks after use, if 
required for future reference. Paper for working drawings can be obtained 
in rolls about 4 ft. wide, and about 1,000 yds. long. A wooden roller is inserted 
in the centre, and supported by strong brackets (see diagram f. 2 above) ; one 
end of the paper is placed under a lath, which has a sliding knife attached. 




2. A Roller Attachment for Large Size Drawing Paper. 



232 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

When paper is wanted, the required length is drawn under the lath, and 
separated from the roll by drawing the knife along it. 

Instruments. — The following are the usual instruments required : — A 4 ft. 
fourfold rule, one set of cardboard scale rules, a case of drawing instruments, 
large wooden or celluloid set squares, a wooden bevel with adjustable top, two 
large wooden tee squares, one with movable head and set screw, two trammels, 
a beam compass with adjustable heads, tracing paper, and a straightedge. 



Estimating. 

Estimating for cabinetwork demands a very careful attention to details. 
Scale drawings or perspectives and specifications are supplied to the foreman 
or estimating clerk, from which he prepares the prime or factory cost. Many 
factors affect the practice of estimating, and it is only by a broad knowledge of 
procedure, and a careful study of fluctuating market prices in certain timbers, 
fittings, discounts and rebates, that estimates can be systematically prepared. 
Local rates of labour, extra wages and expenses for fixing, must also be calculated. 
The differences of working various woods also require attention. Time limits 
and contract clauses, with penalties for incompletion of work within a definite 
time, and the consequent possibility of paying extra wages for overtime, 
lighting charges, &c, must also be allowed for. 

Repetition Work is more economic than the first model, as it does not 
require extra templates, cutters, and working drawings, and is duly considered 
when estimating for quantities. Only the basis of estimating is dealt with here, 
involving methods in daily use in firms where it is carried beyond the com- 
parative guesswork that prevails in some of the smaller shops. 

Specifications always accompany architects' drawings, and must be carefully 
followed in estimating ; they contain all information not conveyed by the draw- 
ing, such as quality of wood, machine or hand wrought, with descriptions of 
special fittings, finish, &c. The first step in estimating is to ascertain the super- 
ficial area of timber in each thickness used, which is entered upon a printed form 
arranged as indicated on next page. The wardrobe illustrated on p. 155 is taken 
as a specimen job. When the timber items are complete, labour is dealt with 
and entered as shown. Work involving the co-operation of other departments 
is also entered under their respective titles. Fittings should be specified in 
detail, with the estimated cost attached to each, providing the requisite 
information as to price, &c, when ordered by the foreman or stockkeeper. 
Space is also allowed for extras, in which is entered additional expenditure not 
coming under previous heads. Glue, &c, is a constantly recurring item, and 
comparatively large when veneered work is dealt with. Workshop expenses 
include the salaries of manager and foreman, rent, taxes, light, and general 
upkeep. These are based upon an average for the previous twelve months, and 
reduced to a certain percentage of labour cost. This method of estimating 
in detail upon prepared forms has the additional advantage of constituting 
a valuable record of executed work, and is extremely useful for purposes of 
reference. 



FOREMEN'S WORK AND PRACTICAL SETTING OUT 



233 



Job — Satinwood Wardrobe. 
Customer — H.J. Smith, Esq. 



Factory Estimate. 



Order No. — ^326. 
Clerk— H.J. E. 



Wood. 


Thick. 


Feet. 


@ 


£ 


' s. 


d. 


Wood. 


Thick. 


Feet. 


@ 


£ s.d. 


Cuba Mahog. 


4" 


12 


1/2 





14 





Satinwood 


if: 


2 


i/9 


036 


>> jj 


5" 

8 


15 


7 d 





8 


9 


j> 


8 


3 


1/2 


036 


Hond. „ 


7" 
8 


98 


8d. 


3 


5 


4 


5> 


8 


5 


7 d. 


211 


>) )> 


§." 


39 


6d. 





[9 


6 


W. Ind. veneer 




16 


iod. 


13 4 


») )> 


1" 

2 


73 


4 |d. 


1 


7 


4i 


E. Ind. veneer 




44 


8d. 


1 9 4 


>> >) 


8" 


5 2 


3H 





f S 


2 












>» >) 


1" 
4 


9 


2 |d. 





1 


«4 












Labour. 










Extras. 






Cabinetmaking 




12 








Silver oxidising all brass- 






Polishing - 




3 


15 





work, as per estimate 






Machining 




3 


5 





Messrs 




1 5 






Glue, glass-paper, screws, 




Fittings. 










&c. - 
Workshop expenses, 20 




0100 


Bevelled and silvered plate 










per cent, of labour cost 




280 


glass - - - . 







12 


6 








Two pairs wardrobe door 
















locks - 


3/6 


c 


7 











Four pairs till locks 


1 id. 





3 


8 








One pair centre hinges 


8d. 








8 








Three pairs 2 1 -inch brass 
















butts - 


4 |d. 





1 


12- 








One pair wardrobe door 
















stay ... - 


1/8 





1 


8 








Four pairs swivel coat 
















hooks - 


9 d. 





3 











Six pairs hat and coat 
















hooks - - - - 


5d- 





2 


6 








One pair 6-inch flush bolt 


i/3 





1 


3 








,, 3-inch flush bolt 


yd. 








7 








Six pairs drawer handles - 
Carried forward - 


1/6 





9 





Brought forward - 
Total - 




28 14 \\\ 




28 


14 


n| 


£ s. 


d. 








35 IO 6 h 


Actual Cost 





























234 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



Reduction and Enlargement of Mouldings. 

The diagram f. I. shows a method of proportionately reducing a cornice 
moulding. Draw the section in the rectangle abed, produce the lines bd and 
c d, and with d us centre and d c radius, describe semicircle rejoin b to ^and c to/! 
Two right-angled triangles are now formed. Supposing the height is required 
to reduce to gh, erect this perpendicular, and from g draw a horizontal until 
it cuts the triangle in g 1 . From this point drop a perpendicular into cd. Draw 
horizontal divisions from section to b d, and from these intersections draw 
dotted lines to apex e, which divides the line g'Ji in the same ratio. Dotted 
horizontals are now drawn from i, 2, 3, &c, representing the divisions for height 
of moulding. To obtain the projections, with point d as centre, radius d h', 
describe a quadrant hi. Then draw ij\ divide this line as shown and transfer 
to kg. Drop perpendiculars until they intersect the corresponding horizontals, 
and draw new the section of the moulding. 

Fig. II.— An approximate method of drawing a column is illustrated in this 
figure. First draw the half plan, showing flutes and fillets, determine the height 
of column and draw the division lines 1, 2, 3, &c, at equal distances apart. 
Divide the space between 1 and 5 in plan into four parts, and number as 
indicated. The bottom part of the column has parallel sides, the divided parts 
above diminishing one space in each division. Project the numbered points 
on to their corresponding division lines, which, joined together, shows the 
required curve or outline. The method of projecting the true elevation of flutes 
and fillets will be understood from the drawing. The points on each semicircle 
are projected to the divisions, and the flute lines drawn through these points. 

Fig. III. is used for both reduction and enlargement of a given moulding, 
A representing a cornice moulding required to be reduced one-third. Draw section 
A in rectangle ocab, from and a describe arcs intersecting in d, and draw 
triangle with oa as base, and d as apex. Divide do into three equal parts, and 
from p draw a perpendicular from the horizontal divisions on a. Draw lines 
radiating to apex until they intersect with pp\ and from these points draw 
horizontal projectors. Construct the triangle e c, and divide one side into three 
equal parts, then draw the horizontal q u, and divide proportionately to oc. Draw 
v p on section B, and transfer the length q t top r. Continue with the other spaces, 
from which drop perpendiculars until they intersect with horizontal projectors, 
and draw the outline of the section. If the moulding is required to be enlarged, 
fix the compasses to proposed height, and with as centre cut ab produced in e. 
Perpendiculars raised from the intersection of this line with the horizontal 
division 1, 2, 3, &c, will represent the proportionately increased spaces for height 
line. This is transferred to another part of the paper. To obtain the projections 
describe the quadrant aw, with centre 0. Measure the distance from a to where 
oe cuts the quadrant. Transfer this distance from w to y, and draw line oy. 
The intersection of this line with the vertical divisions accurately represents the 
new projections. 



PRACTICAL SETTING OUT AND APPLIED GEOMETRY 235 










\ 


\ 1 

/ 1 










/ — 1 


L 


















/ s 






^ 


A 


/ fe 






\> 


7 






^A 


X 8 


^ 


\ 9 


^^ -*- 


\ 10 




\y 





Methods of Enlarging and Diminishing Mouldings and Setting out Columi 



236 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

Intersection of Bracket Mouldings, f. iv. previous page. — Let abed 
represent the plan of a clock bracket, b c and e d the mitre lines. The projection 
of the front piece of moulding is greater than the sides, and therefore a section 
is required that will intersect accurately with the side pieces ; fg is the height of 
the side moulding, and A the section. Erect perpendiculars from profile, draw 
horizontals i, 2, 3, &c, and also horizontals from profile. Transfer the line ef 
and divisions to /id, and the true section of front piece can be drawn by joining 
the intersecting points between the perpendiculars and horizontals as shown. 
When mitreing together the mitres are marked with a bevel set to the angles 
of the plan, when both pieces will truly intersect. 



Intersection of Raking and Curved Mouldings. 

Enlargement of Cornice Moulding. — The illustration in f. 1. is a further 
application of the properties of a triangle in the proportionate division of lines, 
and applies equally well to either enlargement or reduction of a given moulding. 
The rectangle A B C D encloses the profile of a cornice moulding, the height of 
which is to be reduced to the length of line XX. Draw the profile as shown in 
rectangle and produce the horizontal DC to any length DCD. From the fillets 
or squares of the mouldings and the centre of the large ogee drop perpendiculars 
to CD, place compass point in c and describe quadrants from each perpendicular 
until they cut the line A E. The line A E is now considered as the base of a 
triangle, the apex situated at any convenient point on the line D D. From A and 
E draw the sides of the triangle to complete the figure. Draw a horizontal from 
X X until it cuts the triangle in F, and drop the perpendicular F G. To obtain the 
proportionate division of this line, draw horizontals from profile until they cut 
AE numbered 1, 2, 3, &c, and from their points of intersection draw lines 
radiating to apex, cutting F G in i', 2', 3', &c, then draw horizontals which will 
represent the new heights of the moulding. To find the projections, drop 
perpendiculars from profile into C D, and with point C as centre describe 
quadrants cutting C E in a, b, c, &c, join these points to apex, and with G as 
centre, describe quadrants cutting D C. Erect perpendiculars from these points, 
and trace the profile through the intersection. To enlarge the moulding produce 
C D and also the triangle sides. Determine the height as with x X, and the new 
heights and projections may then be obtained in a manner similar to the former 
example. 

Intersection of Curved Mouldings, f. 11. — Where curved mouldings are 
mitred to straight lengths and both pieces are identical in section, curved mitres 
are required to ensure an accurate intersection of the various members. Draw 
outline of curved and straight mouldings, in this case a corner of a piece of framing, 
and also the section of moulding A. From the points numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, &c, 
erect perpendiculars. From point B draw the radius line and transfer the 
divided line D E to d'e'. With compass point in B, describe arcs cutting the per- 
pendiculars, and through the intersection trace a curve ; then make concave and 
convex templates in zinc or veneer to mark the mitre lines upon the moulding. 



PRACTICAL SETTING OUT AND APPLIED GEOMETRY 237 




Methods of Diminishing Mouldings — Finding Curved Mitres and 
Intersection of Raked Mouldings. 



238 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

Intersecting in a Straight Mitre Line. — Fig. in. previous page shows 
this method, which is effected by altering the section of the curved piece. Make 
FGHI the outline of mouldings, and J K the mitre line. Draw section B on 
straight length, and from F G draw horizontal projectors until they cut the mitre 
line; from the points of intersection in this line draw arcs until they cut f'g', 
and erect short perpendiculars upon I, 2, 3, &c. Transfer the height line FO 
to section C, and draw horizontal projection parallel to G' F' until they cut the 
perpendiculars. Through these points a new section or profile is traced, the 
members differing in width only to the original section on the straight length. 

Intersection of Raking Mouldings, such as occur in overdoors and 
pediments, are illustrated in f. IV. Draw the line B c, and decide the section of 
front piece first, then draw lines parallel to B C, and from the intersections with 
profile 1, 2, 3, &c, draw projectors at right angles to BC, and with A as centre 
swing arcs on to A A and drop perpendiculars. The section of the end piece 
is obtained by joining up the points of intersection. The method of obtaining 
the profile at C will be understood without further explanation. 



Gothic Arches. 

Geometrical constructions of Gothic arches are shown opposite, and are 
named as follows : — Fig. 1. Semicircular. Fig. II. Stilted Semicircular ; the 
springing line of semicircle is raised or "stilted " above the supporting columns. 
Fig. III. Lancet ; two sided, terminating in a sharp point, used in two, three, 
and five fold combinations. Fig. IV. Equilateral. Fig. V. Segmental. Fig. VI. 
Pointed Obtuse or Drop. Fig. VII. Pointed Segmental ; the centres being 
below the springing line as in segmental. Fig. VIII. Three Centred. Fig. IX. 
Four Centred ; the centres in this case are the corners of a square, but pro- 
portions vary. Fig. x. Ogee. Fig. XI. Three Centre. Fig. XII. Pointed Trefoil ; 
constructed upon equilateral triangles. Fig. XIII. Trefoiled ; constructed with 
squares. Fig. XIV. Equilateral Trefoliated ; an arch with trefoils. The upper 
side of an arch is called the " extrados " and the inside " intrados " or soffit. 



The Geometry of Gothic Detail. 

The subject of Gothic woodwork, traced through the many periods of 
Mediaeval Art, is such a large one that only a few general characteristics, 
examples, and bases of construction can be dealt with here. Some of 
Chippendale's designs contained features borrowed from Gothic architecture, 
such as cluster columns, &c. A few of the terms used in connection with 
Gothic work, and illustrated in the diagrams, are as follows: — "Foliation," 
which was introduced as the Gothic style developed, and consisted of foliating 



PRACTICAL SETTING OUT AND APPLIED GEOMETRY 239 








Types of Arches. 



2 4 o MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

the spaces in tracery ; f. I. shows a circle " trefoiled," and this is obtained by 
drawing the equilateral triangle a be, and in bisecting each side and drawing 
lines through these points to the opposite apex; from a, with radius ac, de- 
scribe a circle, also from points b and c ; then from centre d describe an en- 
closing circle, and the remaining lines of the figure are drawn from these four 
centres. Fig. II. is also a " Trefoil " of different proportion. The foils are described 




Diagrams illustrating "Trefoiled" Circles. 



A " Quatrefoil " with Cusping. 



from a, b, and c, which are the bisecting points of each side. Fig. III. is the 
" Quatrefoil." Draw a square with diagonals produced, bisect each side, and draw 
e,f, g, h ; then from these points describe the foils. The leaf shape between each 
foil is called a " cusp," a variation of which is " chamfer cusping," see B on f. vi. 
on p. 241. Fig. III. also shows " trefoliating " in each foil, the construction with a 
semicircle being obvious. Fig. IV. is the method of drawing the " foliated " circle 




Diagram showing Constructive Lines 
for " Trefoliated " Circle. 




Diagram of a Cinquefoil. 



in f. VI. Describe the large circle, and divide the circumference into six equal 
parts, join the points b, e, &c, and draw the tangent ag until it cuts ^/produced ; 
bisect the angle formed, obtaining the point h ; then transfer the distance ah 
to ci and ej\ with radius ^//describe a circle using h as centre, and proceed 
similarly with centres i and j. The required lines are thickened in, and each 
space "trefoliated." Fig. V. is the "Cinquefoil." Describe the pentagon in a 
circle, bisect each side, and draw each foil with these points as centres. 



PRACTICAL SETTING OUT AND APPLIED GEOMETRY 241 




c°M5TRycnorN- DM- 

GRflMS- OF- GOTHIC- 
TRACERY' /=1MP-CUJSTER- 
ED-COLUMMS- • • • 




16 



Construction of Gothic Tracery. 



242 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



The Development of Curved Surfaces. 

The figure shown on this page is an example which illustrates geometrical 
projection and development. A half plan of a vase or knife case is drawn (see 
diagram) first, see a v b v c v d v and also the elevation a d b c. These shapes are 
frequently made of solid stuff, and decorated with carving, especially in work 
of the Adam period, but veneering is also much employed. When veneering 
is necessary, the decoration must be so arranged as to permit the veneer being 
laid in narrow strips, as it is obviously impossible to cover it with a single 
sheet of veneer. Inlaid flutes of boxwood are shown in this example, with 

a groundwork of mahogany. To 
d draw the elevation accurately, divide 
the outline of elevation with hori- 
zontal lines at intervals as 1,2,3, 
&c. Where the lines intersect with 
cd, drop perpendiculars into a x d v 
and with c as centre describe arcs. 
Divide the arc a x d x for flutes and 
spaces in abed, &c, and draw lines 
radiating to e. Then project points 
from a b c on reference line 8 in plan 
into reference line 8 in elevation, 
and proceed next by projecting the 
points of intersection on No. 7 line 
in plan into No. 7 in elevation, and 
so on with all the reference lines. 
Trace curves through these points 
for the true elevation, and then the 
curved heads of flutes are drawn 
freehand. In considering the shape 
of the flutes, it must be borne in 
mind that although they diminish 
towards the bottom the sides are not 
perfectly straight when laid out on a 
flat surface, owing to the curvature of the groundwork in plan. The veneers 
must be bent round a curve when laid in position, and a slight swell in each side 
is necessary to obtain an accurate and well-fitted joint between the pieces. This 
allowance for bending is more apparent when working to full size measurements, 
than from the small illustration given. 

To Obtain the True Shape of a Flute and space to which zinc templates 
are made, find the true length in the stretch out line of A B, and place it at the 
side of the diagram, see A B' and a" b" ; transfer the divisions also, and draw 
short horizontal lines ; number these as with reference lines corresponding with 
the plan and elevation. Then measure the true size of a flute on the plan re- 
ference line No. 8, and transfer to the corresponding reference line on a' b', then 




Diagrams illustrating Development for 
Veneers on Vase Shape. 



PRACTICAL SETTING OUT AND APPLIED GEOMETRY 



243 




1. System of Measuring Curved Lines. 



the true size of a flute on reference line No. 7, which is also transferred to reference 
line No. 7 on a' b'. Continue in this way until all the true measurements are 
obtained and transferred, when the outline can be drawn through the resultant 
points, and then complete the flute by describing a semicircle at top. The shaped 
pieces between the flutes are also measured and drawn in this way, both templates 
being prepared of tin zinc, and tested carefully in the groundwork before cutting 
the shapes. Three or four pieces may be secured in the groundwork with veneer 
pins and strips of paper glued over the joints. When quite dry the pins are with- 
drawn, and the groundwork glued previous to 
veneering. Sand-bags are the most effective if 
firmly hand-screwed down upon the veneer. 
The constructions, developments, and 
projections explained below involve much 
measurement of curves, and a simple system 
of measuring must be thoroughly understood 
before proceeding with the more complicated 
diagrams. Three lines are shown in f. 1, 
a y b, and c above, representing a compass line, ogee, and elliptical curve respec- 
tively. To measure the true length of a draw a straight line on tracing paper, 
mark a point d ox\ this line, place this point over D and then place the sharp point 
of a pricker through them. Rotate slightly until the straight line coincides with 
the curve at e, and place the pricker in this point and again rotate slightly ; the 
length of the line is transferred in this way to the straight line, and any divisions 
or points upon the curve as g h are also marked in their relative positions. 

The branch of practical geometry described below can be applied to finding 

true shapes of almost any curved work before 
groundworks are prepared. It frequently happens 
that the true shapes or developments are required 
before any practical work is proceeded with, especi- 
ally when marquetried decoration has to be pre- 
pared. Fig. 2 alongside is a square pillar in vase 
form with curved outline, each face being panelled 
with a contrasting veneer. Such shapes must be 
developed and drawn upon a flat surface, as the 
actual shape of curves are foreshortened when 
drawn in elevation. Draw the outline and shaped 
panel abcdef, f. 2, with centre line g/i, from c 
drop a perpendicular until it cuts the produced 
line kl. Divide the elevation with horizontals arranged as in diagram, and 
number the intersections with the perpendicular ck' as 1,2, 3, &c. Draw the 
centre line at the side of diagrams and the horizontals cm upon this line, with 
the divisions as numbered in 1', 2', 3', &c. This is best accomplished by draw- 
ing a straight line on tracing paper, and pricking the true length upon it as 
described above, drawing the horizontals from 1, 2, 3, &c. Now transfer the 
reference line of elevation on to the development with points of intersection 
marked 00 upon it, and continue with reference line No. 2, marking the position 
of points//. Proceed with the succeeding lines until all the points are obtained, 




2 44 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




and draw the developed outline through them. The veneers are cut to these 

shapes, and when glued to stiff paper or lined are bent over each face, and should 

accurately fit the outline. The panel 
curves will likewise fit into the posi- 
tion indicated in elevation. 

The diagram f. i shows the 
general method usually adopted for 
finding the true shape of veneer re- 
quired for covering a circular conical 
shape. The application of these prin- 
ciples to various other forms should 
suggest themselves to the reader, as, 
for example, conical or splayed niches, 
heads, &c. The elevation is repre- 
sented in f. i alongside, by b' e and 
a f. Produce a b' and fe until they 
intersect in G the apex of a cone ; 
divide the plan into any number of 
equal parts indicated by 1,2, 3, &c, 
and draw lines radiating from these 
1. points to the centre g s then draw the 

perpendicular b' b and describe the arc 

b d with g as centre. The quarter plan of the frustum of cone is now indicated by 

b, d,g, and the size of veneer must be the length of the line (bdx 4) for top edge, 

and (length of line a ex 4) for the bottom edge. 

The curve of the veneer or development is found 

by describing the arcs a c and d U with G as 

centre. Mark the divisions 1, 2, 3, &c, on ac 

along the arc c a and join these points to G, the 

joint line for veneer is shown by each of these, and 

the whole length of veneer required is (c a x 4). 
Geometrical projection and development 

applied to an octagonal shape is illustrated in 

f. 2. The outline is drawn first, and to obtain 

the correct representation of the intersections of 

adjoining faces in elevation, a plan is required, 

a be, &c. Draw the diagonals bf, eg, &c, and 

divide the elevation by drawing horizontals for 

reference lines numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. From 

reference line No. 2, drop a perpendicular cut- 
ting the diagonals bf and eg in plan, and con- 
tinue also with 3, 4, and 5. These lines are now 

drawn parallel to each side of the octagon, and 

represent sectional plans of the elevation on the 

cutting planes or reference lines. Project the points marked a b, &c, on diagonal 

dh to the reference lines, and proceed similarly with the points on diagonal ae, 

then complete the elevation by drawing the angle lines through these points. 




PRACTICAL SETTING OUT AND APPLIED GEOMETRY 



2 45 



To Develop one Surface. — This method will be understood from the 
description given in the previous example ; draw the centre and reference lines, 
when the points for the curves are obtained by measuring the distance of 
/// ;/ op, &c, from the centre line of elevation, and transferring to the diagram. 



Bevelled Work Development. 

The term "hopper" is generally applied in cabinetmaking to work that 
tapers towards the bottom, instances of which occur in pedestals, wine coolers, 
caskets, &c. The method of 
obtaining the true cuts at the 
angles is shown in f. 2 along- 
side — a wine cooler. Part is 
shown of a four-sided ex- 
ample, and the further appli- 
cation of the principles in- 
volved are illustrated in the 
splayed corner diagram. A 
simple and straightforward 
way of executing this class 
of work is to regard the job 
as a series of " planes " or 
thin sheets of metal ; de- 
velopments are thus rendered 
easier, and confusion, due to 
multiplicity of lines, should not 
result. The plan is shown by 
ae, dJi, and bf,cg; project 
the elevation from these 
points after ascertaining and 
marking the height. In order 
to obtain the true shape of 
each piece, one end is first 
rebated into the horizontal 
plane. Use g as centre and 

with radius g h describe an arc cutting the bottom line produced in i. Produce 
the lines ae, and dh, and drop a perpendicular from i, joining the points as 
shown, which when completed represents the true shape of the ends. Make c f 
equal to g i, and produce the line e h, join the points obtained which will give 
the true shape of front and back, and the bevels are exactly alike in both cases. 

When making the carcase, prepare the stuff and plane edges to fit bevel C, 
mark the shape of each piece on the outside, using bevel D for this purpose ; then 
mark mitre lines on top and bottom edges with a set mitre, and cut and plane 
to the lines. The development of the splayed corner should be clear from the 
diagram f. 1, the cuts being obtained by setting an adjustable bevel to 6y\ degs. 





Views showing Method of Projecting Developments. 



246 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



Bevel the edges as before to bevel c and mark the half mitres on each edge (see 
bevel E) and then cut and plane to the lines. To strengthen the joints, tongue- 

ing is sometimes em- 
ployed, and dovetail- 
ing is excellent if 
" facing up " is pos- 
sible, whilst " keying " 
is effective for ve- 
neered work. 



An Elliptical 
Dome. 

Many illustra- 
tions could be given 
of vases, domes, wine 
coolers, &c, of circu- 
lar and elliptical 
shape, but the ex- 
ample shown ade- 
quately illustrates the 
method of projection 
and of obtaining the 
necessary bevels and 
cuts, and also the con- 
struction of these 
forms. Wedge-shaped 

segments are used in this case, but the segmental building up, as in a circular 

table frame, can sometimes be employed to advantage. Dry, well-seasoned wood 

is of course an essential in this work, and it will be found advantageous to 

roughly cut the segments to shape first, 

and then allow them to stand about for 

some time until the shrinkage is quite 

complete before finally jointing and glueing 

up to shape. Subsequent shrinkage would 

in most cases be almost impossible to 

remedy. To obtain the segments and 

bevels requisite for glueing up the shape, 

first set out a semi-ellipse full size upon a 

board (see f. I above), with a b the minor 

axis, and cd half major axis. Determine 

the number of segments in the dome, and 

draw to the joint lines radiating to C. Five 

templates are necessary to mark the segments, the first of which is obtained by 

drawing the line c 1 d 1 at any convenient distance above the plan. Erect the 

perpendicular c 1 c 1 equal to the height of the dome, and describe a quarter ellipse 




i. Views illustrating Development of Elliptical Shapes. 




View showing a Rib Chamfered down 
to Outline. 



PRACTICAL SETTING OUT AND APPLIED GEOMETRY 



247 




1. Marking out the Rib Shapes- 
ist Stage. 



with a trammel. The figure c x c 2 d l will now represent a half elevation of the 
dome, diagram G. The dotted line indicates the outside line of the template, 
and the inside line is gauged from this edge after it is cut. The segment is 
obtained in a like manner. The finished curved line is a true quadrant or quarter 
circle, see r 5 c* b x . Three remaining templates are now required. The develop- 
ment of one is given in diagram K, showing the method, and its application will 
be obvious. To find the true shape of segment 
marked K in plan, proceed to rebate that part 
of the dome into the horizontal plane. Draw 
the quarter ellipse marked e f g It in plan, and 
erect perpendiculars, cutting the elevation in 
e 1 f 1 g l k\ From these intersections with the 
elevation c 1 c 1 d l draw horizontals to centre line, 
and transfer the revisions to c" l c in K diagram, 
and then draw the projection parallel to base 
line cf, with c as centre radii e 3 / 3 g 3 h z . Describe 
arcs cutting c f, and erect perpendiculars from 
these points until they intersect with the hori- 
zontal projectors. Trace the curve through 
these points of intersection, and proceed simi- 
larly with J and L. To find the plan of each piece, draw the dotted line/^, 
equidistant from intersection of K and L, with base line of dome, the bevels 
indicating the joint line at the base. 

Marking out the Material. — The thickness of each piece required is 
obtained by joining the points marked with dotted line in f. 1, G, p. 246, and 
drawing a line parallel to it outside the template line. Cut a wedge-shaped piece 

for segment c f e in plan, and plane the upper surface. 
The sides of this piece represent the vertical planes K 
and L. Place the template K on one side level with 
the top edge, and then mark out (see f. 1 above). Pro- 
ceed likewise with template L, and join the sides to- 
gether with pencil lines as shown, and then cut to shape. 
All the segments are thus prepared, and the templates 
are then cut again to the true curve lines. Carefully 
adjust the template on one side of a segment, and 
mark out (see f. 2 alongside). The other edge is also 
marked in this manner. Then chamfer away the 
corner of material down to curved lines (see f. 2, A, 
p. 246), and cut and plane the inside of the segment 
from line to line. This chamfering down to the curve 
is necessary to ensure the pieces being glued up accurately, and also as a guide 
when finishing elliptic work to shape, but it is dispensed with in a circular form ; 
these are usually turned both inside and outside upon a lathe. When all the 
segments have been cut, bevelled, and chamfered, they are fitted in position as 
shown in A, f. 2, p. 246. Dowelling the joints is advisable, and when the position 
of dowels in the joint is decided, a pin is driven in the centre of each intended 
dowel hole ; this is allowed to project \ in. above surface, and filed to a sharp point. 




2. Marking out the Ribs- 
2nd Stage. 



248 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



FIG! 



Then carefully set the pieces together, and press. Corresponding centres will 
then be marked on the other piece ; after which withdraw the pins and bore the 
holes. Horizontal lines are drawn upon the stuff as a guide when boring, and if 
lines are also drawn on the plan the brace and bit can be held directly in position 

above them. The dowel holes 
will be bored in line with each 
other. Glueing up is then 
proceeded with, and a grip is 
obtained for hand-screws by 
glueing blocks at intervals. 
Each quarter ellipse should 
be glued up separately, and 
then fitted together. For 
glueing up circular segmental 
_ forms, refer to chapter on 
" Curved Work." 



A Circular Dome. 

Fig. i represents a circu- 
lar dome in sectional eleva- 
tion, and the view is obtained 
by drawing the trimmers or 
bearers first, and then the 




Sectional Elevation and Plan of a Dome. 



semicircles which indicate the thickness ; and the section of the bottom frame 
and curved crown is also drawn in. The rebate line of the crown is obtained by 
striking an arc line from the bottom rebate, thus permitting the free entrance of 
glass or panel. To obtain the eleva- 
tion of the ribs, draw part plan of 
dome and the semicircles a b and c. 
Then draw the dotted perpendiculars 
until they cut the inside line of rib, 
joining the points with dotted hori- 
zontals. Project points of ribs from 
f e and d on to corresponding dotted 
horizontals, and draw the curves for 
ribs through these points. This 
method is approximate only, but 
sufficiently accurate for purposes of 
representation. The construction of 
the bed frame is shown in plan, seg- 
ments are butt jointed, dowelled, and secured with hand rail bolts. To obtain 
the sections of mouldings in the dome it will be necessary to draw a portion of 
the bed frame plan upon a board (see f. 2, A, P., C, D, above). Draw line A radiat- 
ing to centre, and then the section of the rib upon this, and the curved lines 




FIG. 2. *»' 

Showing Method of Intersection for 
Mouldings on Curved Bars. 



PRACTICAL SETTING OUT AND APPLIED GEOMETRY 249 

a, b, c, d, &c. The section E shows the moulding of the bed frame exactly similar 
to the rib section. The large moulding of crown (see f) is again the same 
section, but owing to the splayed rebate of this piece, the bead moulding must 
be worked to the section shown. This is obtained by drawing projectors 1, 2, 3, 
. &c, parallel to the rebate line, and through these intersections with f g and // 
trace the outline of ogee moulding. A good mitre intersection is thus obtained, 
or if scribing is used in conjunction with tenoning or dowelling for connecting 
the ribs to the crown, the scribed joint will show a true mitre line. This ex- 
ample of a dome is most suitable for a passenger lift, and is usually executed in 
hard wood, with framed, panelled, and fitted interior. The wood or glass panels 
are best secured by screwing the bead mouldings. 



CHAPTER XI. 

NOTES ON THE HISTORIC STYLES OF FURNITURE, WITH 
EXAMPLES OF MODERN WORK. 

Gothic — Renaissance — French — Elizabethan — Jacobean — Queen Anne — Eighteenth 
Century — Chippendale — Hepplewhite — Sheraton — Adams — Victorian — Present Day 
— List of Historic Houses open to Public. 

IT would be impossible to give anything like a full account of the development 
of the various styles of furniture in the course of one chapter, but as no 
book on cabinetwork would be complete without some reference to so important 
a feature in the craft, it is thought advisable to refer, however briefly, to the 
designers and makers of past periods. 

The tendency of modern furniture design shows a direct influence of some 
style, and no one in the trade can afford to ignore it. Many are content to 
simply copy old examples, and houses are still furnished and decorated after the 
manner of the Queen Anne, Georgian, or Adam periods. On the other hand, it 
is much more desirable that the styles should be studied with a view of adapting 
them to modern taste and requirements, and there can be no doubt that attempts 
in this direction would receive public support. 

Cabinetmakers, whether master or man, may at any time be called upon to 
restore, copy, or make furniture of any period, or based upon some style, and 
a knowledge of these styles should be as much a part of their " kit " as any one 
of their tools. A large number of books are published which illustrate the work 
of different periods. A short list will be found at the end of the book, and it is 
to them that reference should be made for fuller information. 

Gothic. — Up to the end of the sixteenth century the details of woodwork 
and furniture followed very closely on the prevailing style of architecture, and 
especially so during the Gothic periods, which covered a course extending over 
three centuries, roughly, from the twelfth to the fifteenth. The gradual changes 
from Early English (thirteenth century) to Decorated (fourteenth century) on 
to the Perpendicular (fifteenth century) can be seen in the woodwork by the 
tracery on panels, the mouldings, and the developments of the arch, from the 
lancet as the earliest, the "decorated " or "geometric " in the fourteenth century ( 
and finishing with the flatter or four-centre arch in the fifteenth and sixteenth 
centuries. Examples are given in Chapter X. These details are still applied 
to church furniture in chairs, seats, altar, side or "credence" tables, choir stalls, 
pulpits, font covers, and screens, but are not used in household articles. An 
old fourteenth-century cabinet is shown in the first chapter, but the pulpit and 



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A Late Seventeenth Century Chest of Drawers. 



[To face page 251. 



HISTORIC STYLES OF FURNITURE AND MODERN EXAMPLES 251 

seat on Plate XXVI. are modern examples of Gothic work from the workshops of 
Harry Hems & Sons, Exeter. The pulpit, designed for the church at Lantiglos, 
Cornwall, is made chiefly of English oak, a timber which Mr Hems prefers to 
use whenever possible. The seat is in Hungarian wainscot, which, though less 
costly and easier in the working, does not possess the fine qualities of the 
English timber. 

Renaissance or Classic Revival. — With the " revival of learning " there 
came great and sweeping changes in the domestic arts, and with them also came 
more luxurious living. The movement began in Italy and spread to France. 
The work known as " Historic French" is associated with the reigns of Francis I. 
from 15 1 5 to 1547, and of Henri II. up to 1559. The furniture, made chiefly of 
walnut, was richly carved with classic details of a mixed order. Acanthus 
leaves, dentils, egg and tongue, with " cartouche " or moulded panels were some 
of the details applied to cabinets and other furniture, whilst most of the friezes 
and table frames were bulged and carved with " nulling." Curved and broken 
pediments and twisted columns were features of the style, which towards the 
end of the century became very much debased. 

In England, Henry VIII. gave every encouragement to the revival, and 
patronised Italian artists and workmen as well as the German artist Holbein, 
whose name is associated with much of the work of the period. Panelling with 
a circle is associated with his name. Classic details were mixed with Gothic, 
and made up what is known as the Tudor style, beginning with Henry VII. in 
1485, and ending with the more familiar " Elizabethan" in 1603. The fortified 
castle became less necessary, and the manor house developed. Haddon Hall 
and Hampton Court are well-known and fine examples of the Tudor style. The 
woodwork, as in the Gothic days, followed the architecture, and we find that 
cornices, pilasters, columns, &c, resemble as far as possible the classic orders, 
although in the transition stage many Gothic features were retained. The 
fireplace was the most important piece of work in the room, and it was in this 
period that the first extending or " drawinge " table appeared, shown in chapter 
on " Tables." Legs of tables were heavy and shaped like an acorn. " Court " or 
cheese " cupboards " were built up out of the chest ; the linen panel, an earlier 
detail, was discarded for one which was split into five small panels of various 
design, square, circle, and diamond shaped, whilst the circular-headed panels with 
scalloped edges were a feature in the chimneypiece. The great halls would be 
furnished with long tables and stools, with heavy oak chairs for use at the head 
table, whilst the ponderous bedstead was the most prominent piece of furniture in 
the bedroom. Much of the work was inlaid, and towards the end of the reign it 
was largely influenced by the Flemings, and so by the accession of James I. it 
had become heavier and coarser in detail. (See Chapter XIV. for types of 
panelling.) Afterwards came the Jacobean style, followed by that sometimes 
described as "Stuart," lasting up to 1688, when James II. ceased to reign. 
The Elizabethan details and forms were continued, but were added to. Chairs, 
tables, settles, chests, dressers, and cabinets came into more general use, many 
with moulded fronts as in the illustration. The court or cheese cupboard 
became the principal article in household furniture. The decorative details 
were varied by split turning and frets laid on or cut in the solid, and acorn 



252 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

drops on tables and chairs, whilst the carving developed into incised and simple 
gouge and strap work. Towards the end of the period, and during the 
Cromwellian and Stuart days, the gate table was introduced, and chairs were 
stuffed or caned. The style and details varied according to the taste and 
patronage of the monarch. Charles II. favoured the French artists, and 
much work of French origin was brought over to add to the magnificence 
of the Court. 

William and Mary, 1689 to 1702. — Up to the end of the seventeenth 
century the furniture manufactured in England had been made chiefly of oak, 
but with the advent of the Dutch influence walnut was used. The S-shaped and 
cabriole leg with curved under stretchers, chairs with wide and curved splats in 
the back, bureaux, and chests of drawers on a stand or lower carcase (see 
illustration, Plate XXVII.), inlaid grandfathers' clocks, and card tables with 
" candle " or circular corners, took the place of the heavier and more severe oak 
work of the previous century. The Dutch style prevailed under the reign of 
Queen Anne, 1702 to 17 14, and continued to influence the furniture of the 
reigns of George I. and George II. right up to the year 1750. During this 
period the court cupboard had developed into a dresser, a type common to 
Yorkshire and Wales. Most of the walnut work was veneered on yellow deal 
and oak with " herring-bone " patterns on the drawer fronts, and round edges to 
carcase ends and fronts of drawer rails, which were faced up with a solid slip 
with the grain at right angles. The bureaux were made in two parts, an upper 
carcase with two drawers, and a framed-up stand (usually with cabriole legs) 
with one drawer. Somewhat later a cupboard or china cabinet was added 
to the bureau, and " tall-boy " chests of drawers with a curved frieze were 
introduced. Wall mirrors are a special feature of the Queen Anne period. 
They were usually flat with pierced and shaped wings and pediments, whilst 
the moulding was often carved and gilt. 

Georgian. — If all the furniture made during the reigns of the four Georges 
is to be termed "Georgian," it would cover a period of 115 years, from 1714 to 
1829, but the time had come when the style of furniture was no longer to be 
known by the name of the reigning monarch, but by the designer. The term 
Georgian, however, can well be given to the pre-Chippendale period, which almost 
covered the reigns of George I. and George II., from 1714 to 1750, in which year 
Chippendale must have been preparing his book of designs, published four years 
later. " Georgian " furniture proper is a continuation of the Dutch and French 
styles, which were also influenced by the architecture of the period. This 
period included such a carver as Grinling Gibbons, who died in 1 721, and 
architects of the Christopher Wren school, such as Kent, Gibbs, and Ware, 
many of whom designed furniture and woodwork. No great change took 
place until the middle of the eighteenth century, when the king no longer 
dominated the style, and the craftsman received due recognition. 

Chippendale. — Thomas Chippendale was a carver by trade. He lived and 
worked at Worcester, and later came to London, when he started business in 
St Martin's Lane. In 1754 he published the first edition of his book entitled 
" The Gentleman's and Cabinet Maker's Director," copies of which are now very 
rare, and fetch a high price. A later edition was published in 1762. The book 



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HISTORIC STYLES OF FURNITURE AND MODERN EXAMPLES 253 

contained designs for all kinds of furniture, from tea kettle stands to organ cases. 
Mahogany was just being shipped into England in large quantities, and he made 
it his chief material. Chippendale based his designs on Chinese, Gothic, and 
Louis XIV. and XV. work. The " frets " and " traceries " found in his pediments, 
friezes, chair legs and backs, &c, and his Pagoda cabinets, are the direct result 
of the Chinese influence. The Gothic was not successful, and he did not 
pursue it to any great extent, so that his style may be termed Chinese-French. 
Of all his furniture perhaps his chairs are the best known, the four noted examples 
being the "Lattice" (Chinese), "Ribbon," "Ladder," and " Wheatsheaf," or 
pierced " splat " backs. The last-named he evidently borrowed from the Queen 
Anne chair. In legs he used the cabriole, with club and claw and ball foot, 
plain or moulded square, tapered, pierced, or square, with fret laid on ; but he 
designed an endless variety of legs and backs ; and the same may be said of his 
barred doors for cabinets and bookcases. An example is seen in Plate XXVIII.,* 
a cabinet of a later period with a swan-neck and fretted pediment. Other 
details peculiar to Chippendale are the "Pagoda" steps on the tops of china 
cabinets, " pie-crust " edges on small tea tables, broken and swan-necked 
pediments, classic cornices, raised mouldings on flush-panelled doors, and 
French curves and shells of Louis XV. (known as " Rococo " details) on carved 
and gilt pier glasses. Most of his work was made in the solid, and he did not 
use inlay and but very little turning. 

R. Gillow, the founder of the present firm, was in business at Lancaster 
in the last year of the seventeenth century. He came to London, and estab- 
lished the famous house in Oxford Street. The firm earned a reputation for 
first-class work, which they sustained throughout the nineteenth century. 
Though not creating a special style, their work was influenced by the 
eighteenth-century designers. The firm is now amalgamated with Waring 
&Co. 

G. Hepplewhite. — The next firm of note to follow Chippendale was that 
of A. Hepplewhite & Co., who published " The Cabinetmaker and Upholsterer's 
Guide" in 1789, a book of designs which went through three editions by 1794, 
A. Hepplewhite being the widow who published the book and continued the 
business of her husband, G. Hepplewhite. These designs are more refined than 
Chippendale's, being based on classic details, and the later French style of 
Louis XVI. The "shield," "oval," and "honeysuckle" chair backs are best 
known. The legs are usually turned or tapered, and curved, and, as a rule, 
Hepplewhite's chairs are all open-backed, i.e., not stuffed over. His barred 
doors are curved, with a " swag " introduced, while his pediments have delicate 
scrolls or swags hanging from a vase as centre ornament. All through there 
is a delicacy of detail as compared with Chippendale's heavy work. Hepple- 
white specialised in " tall-boy " chests, knife boxes and vases, toilet glasses 
and bedroom furniture. He used veneer, and other woods than mahogany, 
and some of his chairs were painted. His work is recognised by special 
details such as " swags " on chairs and barred doors, wheat-ears carved on chair 
backs, vases introduced as ornament, carved mouldings, the water-leaf — a 
favourite detail in carving — sideboards with hollow corners, the " husk " in 
borders of table tops, and in the " fluted " frieze and " reeded " legs. 



254 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

Sheraton. — Not much is known of Thomas Sheraton except his work, and 
this has proved him to be the "master" cabinetmaker. He was born at 
Stockton-on-Tees in 1751 and served his time at the bench, after which he 
came to London and worked as drawing master, author, and cabinetmaker, 
although it is doubtful if he ever made up his designs ; and he was also known 
as a " local " preacher. He lived in Soho, and one can imagine the struggles he 
had to bring out his famous book by the record of a friend who writes of his 
"threadbare coat," and scantily furnished room, which was "half shop and half 
dwelling-house." In 1791 he published his book, "The Cabinetmaker's and 
Upholsterer's Drawing Book." His designs, as opposed to Chippendale's 
flamboyant, and Hepplewhite's finicky details, were straightforward, simple, 
and severe. Like the last named he was influenced by classic and Louis XVI. 
details, but he brought them down to his material. He too designed oval and 
shield back chairs, but the greater number were square or with a slightly curved 
top rail. He introduced more turning, discarded any underframing in his chairs, 
and favoured stuffed all-over seats except where they were caned, as in his 
painted examples. He curved his barred doors, put domes to the tops of 
his china cabinets, and introduced a quantity of drapery both inside and out- 
side. His sideboards were usually round at the corners, and he utilised the 
brass rail at the back very largely, as well as introducing the pedestal and 
leg sideboard. Sheraton was most famous for his veneered work and mechanical 
actions. On some- -erf his furniture there is not a single moulding, and he 
was the first to use satinwood to any great extent, as well as to design a 
"kidney" writing table. There was no end to his ingenuity in contrivances 
for double and triple mirrors, rising desks and artful combinations. His 
"slotted bar" action is described in the chapter on "Mechanical Actions." 
He designed the first wardrobe, as we know it, with centre carcase and 
wings, and was very fond of using the " tambour " shutters for commodes 
and small tables. In his last days, which were the first years of the nine- 
teenth century, he published other designs much inferior to his earlier work, 
due, no doubt, to the fact that he had to gain a livelihood and so pander to 
the bad taste of the period into which he was drawn. For types of chair backs, 
see Chapter XVI. on " Chair Making," &c. 

R. and J. Adam. — The brothers Robert and James Adam Were architects 
who, during the years from 1750 to 1790, designed many large houses in London, 
including the Adelphi and Portland Place. The furniture associated with their 
name was designed for the houses, which were built in classic style and decorated 
with delicate Roman details. Classic mouldings ; dentil, egg and tongue, 
acanthus ; vase and urn ; swags, husks, scrolls, mythical figures, key borders, 
garlands and wreaths, honeysuckle, pateras, flutes and reeds, were all treated 
with particular refinement and painted or stuccoed on walls and ceilings, carved 
on furniture, woven into carpets, or cast on fireplaces. Much of their furniture 
was painted and gilt, the painting being done by such notable artists as Angelica 
Kauffmann, Pergolesi, and Cipriani. 

There are many designers of furniture whose names are not so well known 
as those already given, but they deserve some mention here. 

M. Lock and H. Copeland published "A New Book of Ornaments" in 



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HISTORIC STYLES OF FURNITURE AND MODERN EXAMPLES 255 

1752. Their original drawings can be seen in the National Library at 
Kensington, and consist of designs in the Rococo style. 

Thomas Johnson, carver, published books in 1758-1761. His designs were 
largely Rococo. 

Ince and Mayhew published in 1762 "The Universal System of House- 
hold Furniture," with designs in the Chippendale style, and the cluster column 
table. 

J. Crunden, "The Joiner's and Cabinetmaker's Darling," published 1765 
and 1796. 

Robert Manwaring, cabinetmaker, published "The Cabinet and Chair- 
maker's Real Friend and Companion" in 1765, and a later edition in 1766. 
His designs were chiefly for chairs with interlacing and natural "rustic" backs, 
but his work closely resembles Chippendale's. 

Thomas Shearer, cabinetmaker, published designs similar to Sheraton's in 
" The Cabinetmaker's London Book of Prices and Designs of Cabinet Work," 
issued by the London Society of Cabinetmakers in 1793. 

Thomas Hope published " Household Furniture and Interior Decora- 
tion " in 1807. This was an attempt to revive Greek and Roman forms in 
the construction of chairs, tables, sideboards, &c. It is sometimes spoken 
of as the " English Empire style," and was the forerunner of the early 
Victorian. 

French Styles. — The style named after Louis Quatorze (XIV.) covers a 
period of seventy-two years, from 1643 to 171 5. In its early stages it followed 
the Renaissance details of preceding epochs, but gradually developed into the 
heavy curves, S and cabriole legs, and magnificence of detail which character- 
ised the taste of the times. Most notable is the work of Andre Charles Boule 
(known in England as Buhl), who was the king's cabinetmaker. His inlaying 
and technical methods are described in the chapter on " Veneering and 
Marquetry." The reign of Louis Quinze (XV.), 171 5-1774, includes the 
" Regency," i.e., the first eight years of the king's minority. The style soon 
developed into what is known as " Rococo," and is commonly spoken of as " rock 
and shell," and " pebble and splash " ornament. Oeben and Riesener were 
celebrated cabinetmakers of the period. The former designed the King's 
Bureau, the famous piece of cabinetwork known as " Le Bureau du Roi," now 
in the Louvre. It is one of the earliest known "cylinder falls," and is magni- 
ficently decorated with " ormolu " mounts. 

Louis Seize (XVI.), 1774- 1793. — I" tn i s reign there is a distinct return to 
simpler lines and details. Legs of tables and chairs were straight and tapering, 
and the mounts were more refined. Brass mouldings and galleries, and marble 
tops were favourite features, and veneering and marquetry were largely used. 
The diaper patterns in veneer, though commenced in Louis XV.'s reign, may 
be associated chiefly with Riesener in Louis XVI. work, whilst Gouthiere, who 
also worked in the previous period, did his finest work in the same years. One 
special feature of this period is the " lacquer " work known as " Vernis Martin," 
the name of its inventor. From this may be dated the French polish of modern 
furniture. 

Empire, 1799-1814. — This style was influenced by the Egyptian, Roman, 



256 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

and Greek work, chiefly the latter, and was developed during the Napoleonic 
period. Chairs, tables, and cabinets were designed principally to illustrate 
the mythologies. Caryatides, sphinxes, rams, and a mixture of animal and 
human figures were used to enrich them. Mounts were retained, but were 
simpler, and were confined to bases and caps for columns, and mouldings for 
panels. Brass lines and bands were frequently used in panels, and the backs 
of chairs, whilst metal grilles or silk took the place of the barred doors when 
the style made itself felt in England. " Pillar and claw " tables are a feature 
of this period. 

Victorian. — The furniture made in the early years of this period was an 
unsuccessful attempt to copy the " Empire " style, without the brass mounts, 
and there is probably no time in the history of English furniture when 
taste was at such a low ebb. This is the more remarkable coming after the 
brilliant half of the previous century, and it was not until after the " fifties " that 
serious attempts were made to improve matters. Up to this time the best 
examples were heavy and cumbersome, such as the pedestal sideboards with low 
wooden or mirror backs and mouldings overweighted with carving, the smaller 
" chiffonier," the " pillar and claw " tables, of which the oval " Loo table " was 
one specially designed for the game of Loo, and which is still made, though in 
diminishing numbers. Chairs and "sofas" were made with ponderous curves, 
and covered with horsehair, whilst " what-nots " in burr walnut, and mirror 
frames with Tunbridge work in all colours of the rainbow, were among the 
smaller articles. The introduction of new woods produced some changes. 
Thus, mahogany wardrobes gave place to birch and bird's-eye maple, and 
they too had to make way for ash and American walnut. There was a 
period when " black and gold " cabinets were quite a rage, and rosewood was 
revived with marquetry, only to be discarded in its turn. A later development 
was in "spindle" rails and "fretwork," and with bevelled glass came a great 
trade in "overmantels." As early as 1835 Augustus Pugin, an architect, 
published his " Designs for Gothic Furniture," which did little more than 
draw attention to the need for reform, although many of his designs were 
made up. Bruce J. Talbert, who designed for Gillovvs, published a book 
in 1868 entitled "Gothic Forms applied to Furniture," and in 1876 another 
on Jacobean work, whilst in the same year, 1868, Mr Charles Eastlake pub- 
lished his " Hints on Household Taste," which ran into several editions. Mr 
Eastlake, who was an architect, designed work for Jackson & Graham, a firm 
of high repute in those days, and both his and Talbert's designs had a wide- 
spread influence in the cabinet trade. They were responsible for the return to 
what was called " Early English " work, chiefly in oak. Talbert designed the 
" Pet" sideboard, so named from the pet animals carved in the panels ; and he 
introduced the carcase sideboard with high or low back, spindle galleries, turned 
supports to shelves, and reeding and fluting along door rails and drawer fronts, 
with incised work in the panels, all largely a revival of Jacobean detail. 
Eastlake worked more closely to Gothic influences, and his designs are suitable 
only for oak work. 

William Morris, 1860-96, by his work and lectures on decorative art 
created a deep interest in all that went to the building, beautifying, and furnish- 



Plate XXXII. 




Italian Walnut Inlaid Cabinet. 
{Designed by Mr George Jack, and made by Messrs Morris or 5 Co., Oxford Street, W.) 



[ To face page 256. 



Plate XXXIII. 




Dressinc, Table and Chair— Part of a "Harewood" Suite. 
(Designedly Mr Ambrose Heal, fun., of Messrs Heal & Son, London.) 



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Sideboard Veneered with Burr Elm. By Mr E. W. Gimson. 




Print Cabinet in Italian Walnut with Raised Inlay. By Mr E. VV. Gimson. 

[To face page 527. 



HISTORIC STYLES OF FURNITURE AND MODERN EXAMPLES 257 



ing of a house. He designed furniture, textiles, and carpets, and wall-papers 
which have had a world-wide sale. The furniture had a tendency to Gothic 
forms, and much of it was painted, carved, or inlaid. But he is best known 
by his wonderful designs in wall-papers and textiles, which were based on 
natural forms entirely. In 1861 he established the firm of Morris & Co., of 
Oxford Street, and was largely responsible in forming the Arts and Crafts 
Society. The two cabinets illustrated, one as the frontispiece, are examples of 
the fine type of work done by this firm. 
They were designed by Mr George Jack, 
and are reproduced by permission of 
E. H. Marillier, Esq. 

The "New Art" development, 
which took place in the last years of the 
nineteenth century, led rather to eccen- 
tricity in form and construction than to 
any well-based ideas of reform in taste. 
A laudable desire for simpler furniture 
resulted in the manufacture of goods 
which were neither simple nor sane, and 
produced a temporary return to rough 
and ready methods of construction, which 
were admirably suited to the rude neces- 
sities of bygone centuries, but insufficient 
for modern needs. A marked feature in 
the work was the revival of inlaying as 
a decorative medium, but this too was 
very largely carried toexcess. In England 
the influence of New Art was but mode- 
rately felt as compared with France 
or Austria, where the ordinary lines of 
furniture were distorted into shapes quite 
unsuitable for constructional woodwork. 
Examples of this work may be studied in 
the Bethnal Green Museum. In America 
there has been a similar movement, 
known as " The Mission Style," which 
is more or less a revival of Gothic and 
Jacobean forms applied to modern work. 

Modern Work and Designers. — Present-day tendencies are in the direction 
of sound principles in design and construction, based on past work and traditions. 
These traditions illustrate some of the finest efforts of English craftsmanship, 
which if applied to modern requirements should lead to the production of 
furniture equal to any of the best periods. 

The photograph above shows a fine satinwood cabinet with some interesting 
details in design and construction. It was designed by Mr R. Waterer, jun.i 
and made for the Countess de Morella by Messrs Waterer & Sons, of Chertsey, 
one of the few good and old-established firms where handwork is done, and 

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Satinwood China Cabinet. Designed by 
Mr R. Waterer, Jun., of Messrs 
Waterer & Sons, Chertsey. 



2 5 >S MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

where it is still possible for a young craftsman to get an all-round training. 
The cabinet was designed as a centre case with a framed-up table part on eight 
legs, which were cut out of the solid and are finished with what is known as 
the " Spanish foot," a detail found on chairs and tables of the late Stuart period. 
The case is made up of eight frames dowelled into posts which run up in a 
line with the legs. The bottom is screwed up into a rebate, and the top, which 
is thick nessed up, is dowelled down to the frames. The doors are hinged at both 
ends, and plate-glass shelves rest on metal pins in each post. Altogether it is a 
piece of work which called for fine skill and intelligence on the part of the maker. 
Mr Ambrose Heal, jun., of Heal & Son Ltd., Tottenham Court Road, has 
designed bedroom furniture on old models, but with many new and interesting 
features. Good proportion and simple lines are its chief characteristics, and the 
wardrobe (Plate XXXIV.) and dressing-table (Plate XXXIII.) illustrate them. 
The firm has also revived the wooden bedstead, and make up the "four poster" 
(p. 1 88), which, with spring mattress and frame, is free from any objection on the 
score of health and cleanliness. The " cupboard chest " in oak, chestnut, or 
painted deal, is an attempt to supply useful and good cottage furniture. Mr 
Heal also designed the special bedroom suite for the King's Sanatorium. In 
recent years he has been the pioneer of painted furniture. The sideboard in 
Plate XVIII., in silver and blue, is an example of simple and effective treatment 
in colour. 

The fine satinwood wardrobe in Plate XXI. is an excellent specimen of 
modern work based on eighteenth-century design. It comes from the Bath 
Cabinet Makers Co., and the walnut sideboard in Plate XL. is from the 
same firm. 

The oak sideboard, also in Plate XL., was designed by Mr Fred Skull, 
of High Wycombe. It is very pleasant in its proportions and simple outlines, 
and the knobs, turned in yew-wood, add a distinct interest to the design. 

The Furniture Design and Cabinet Making Classes in the L.C.C. Institutes 
have turned out some fine pieces of craftsmanship. The Frontispiece (Plate I.), 
a china cabinet in coromandel, palm, and snakewood, and the cabinet in 
Plate XIX., come from the Central School of Arts and Crafts. The sideboard 
in Plate XVII. and the satinwood writing cabinet in Plate XX. are from the 
Shoreditch Technical Institute. The last-named piece won the Silver Medal 
in the City and Guild Competition, 1920. 

Mr Charles Spooner is an architect who is also a furniture designer. 
The furniture in the room (Plate V.), and the oak dresser (Plate XLI.), are 
typical examples of his work on simple and traditional lines. 

Mr Frank Stuart Murray, of the firm of Durand, Murray, & Seddon, 
has for many years been recognised as one of the leading designers of furniture 
and decoration, and has completed many large and important commissions, 
the most recent being the decorations and fittings for the Cunard liner S.S. 
" Mauretania." A model of part of the saloon is shown in the photograph 
(Plate XXXVIII.), and a pencil drawing (Plate XXXIX.) of the decoration 
and panelling in one bay of the smoking-room. The woodwork in the saloon 
is of Italian walnut, and this type of work requires a special knowledge 
of ship construction. Joints have to lap to allow for " camber " and expansion, 



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An Eighteenth Century Garden Seat at Jesus College, Oxford. 
Garden Furniture. By Mr J. P. White, Pyghtle Works, Bedford. 



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Bay of Smokinc-Room on S.S. " Maurktania." 
{Designed by Mr Frank Stuart Murray.) 



Plate XL. 




Walnut Sideboard. By the Bath Cabinetmakers Co. 




Oak Sideboard. {Designed by Mr F. Skull {Skull &-• Son, High Wycombe).) 

\Toface Plate xxxix. 



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HISTORIC STYLES OF FURNITURE AND MODERN EXAMPLES 259 

and the fittings are made to templates. The grand piano (Plate XXXVI.) 
was designed by Mr A. E. Durand. 

Good furniture for the garden is worthy of special attention. The 
eighteenth-century seat on Plate XXXVII. was photographed in the grounds 
of Jesus College, Oxford. It is made of beech, and is of the same period as 
the " wheel-backed " chair, the forerunner of the " Windsor" pattern. The length 
is 3 ft. 10 in. and depth 17 in., height of back from seat 25 in., and seat from 
ground 18 in. The shaping of the seat shows it to have been specially made 
for two. The sets of garden furniture below it are by Mr J. P. White, of 
Pyghtle Works, Bedford, the top one, in teak, showing a marked eighteenth- 
century influence, with some of the delicacy of Adam detail associated with 
strong construction suitable for outdoor use. 

The late Mr E. W. Gimson was also a well-known designer and maker 
of good furniture. The Italian walnut cabinet and sideboard (Plate XXXV.) 
show a considerable degree of original treatment, especially in the inlay, which is 
thick enough to allow for a slight modelling of the leaves. 

Historic Houses Open to the Public. — In concluding this chapter, atten- 
tion should be drawn to the number of famous mansions containing fine 
collections of historic furniture, which, by the courtesy of the owners, are open 
to the public at stated periods. Hatfield House, on Bank Holidays : Easter, 
Whitsun, and August ; Audley End, Saffron Walden, on Wednesdays, 2 to 4 P.M. ; 
Claydon House, Bucks, by permission ; Haddon Hall, Derbyshire, every day 
in the summer months ; and Chatsworth and Hardwick are also open when the 
family is not in residence. Strangers' Hall, Norwich, contains an extremely 
interesting and varied collection which can be seen on payment of 6d. 
Hampton Court Palace is open every day but Friday ; Petworth House, 
Sussex, famous for its Grinling Gibbons' carvings, on Tuesdays and Fridays 
at 1 1 o'clock only ; Goodwood House, near Midhurst, when the family is away ; 
and Battle Abbey, Hastings, Tuesdays only, 12 to 4 P.M. Knole House, 
Sevenoaks, most celebrated for its examples of Jacobean work, is open on 
Thursdays and Saturdays, 2 to 5 P.M., and Fridays and Bank Holidays, 10 to 
5 P.M., admission 2s., reduced for parties. At Penshurst Place, also in Kent, 
a fine old hall with trestle and " high " tables, centre fireplace and open roof, 
can be seen on Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, 2 to 6 P.M., 
admission is., by ticket obtained at the Post Office or "Leicester Arms." 
Ightham Mote, near Sevenoaks, is open on Fridays, 1 1 A.M. to 1 P.M. and 
2 to 6 P.M., admission 6d. Fine collections of furniture of all periods may be 
seen at the Victoria and Albert and Bethnal Green Museums, and French 
furniture in the Wallace Collection. A very interesting collection can be seen 
at the Geffrye Museum in Kingsland Road, N.E., open daily. 



CHAPTER XII. 

CONSTRUCTIONAL AND DECORATIVE BRASSWORK, MOVE 

MENTS, AND FITTINGS. 

Hinges, Butt, Centre, Screen, Desk, Card Table, Piano, Dolphin, Rule Joint, Wardrobe, 
Ouadrant, &c. — Hinge Plates — Locks, Cut and Straight Cupboard, Pedestal, Box, 
Wardrobe, Link Plate, Bird's Beak, Till Drawer, Bureau, &c. — Thumb, Bale, French 
and Bullet Catches — Cupboard Turns — Toilet Glass Movements and Screws — 
Wardrobe, Quadrant, and Rule Joint Stays — Escutcheons — Castors — Bolts — 
Cabinet Handles — Galleries — Mounts — Sideboard Rails — Movements for Music- 
Stools — Library Chairs— Cylinder Fall Desks — Harlequin Tables — Shaving Mirrors 
—Rising Dumb Waiters and Cellarets — Bed Tables — Locking Movements. 

CABINET brasswork can be divided into two parts, viz., the purely constructive 
and the decorative. It would be impossible to describe in detail all the various 
types in either part, but descriptions of the most important are given, together 
with their application to special kinds of furniture. Some examples not named 
in this chapter will be found with the designs on pp. 134, 136, 143, 168, 171, 
172, 183, 186, 191, and 195. 

Hinges. — Types of hinges are shown opposite. Fig. 1 is an ordinary 
" Brass Butt," made from 1 to 6 in. long, polished or sanded, and pressed (as in 
f. 2), or solid, the latter being the best quality known as arrow butts. These 
hinges are used on doors generally, and sometimes have turned knobs at each end 
of the knuckle, a later addition being the " Rising Butt " for room doors. Fig. 2 
is the " Stopped Butt," used for box lids, &c, the flange of which should stop at 
right angles. Butt hinges are also made to lift off. Cross garnet and H hinges 
screw on the front. Fig. 3 is the Back Flap with wider flanges for fall-down 
flaps, and f. 5 the Rule Joint flap hinge with one flange longer to allow for the 
hollow on the joint. A special rule joint hinge is shown on p. 267, the bend 
preventing any cutting away in the joint. Fig. 4 shows the Strap Hinge as 
used for desks and jobs which have but narrow fixing room. Fig. 6 is the patent 
Reversible Hinge for screens, and f. 7 the non-reversible. Another form of strap 
hinge is shown in f. 8, whilst f. 9 and 10 are the Knuckle Joint Screen Hinges 
used on screens with a draught-proof joint. Fig. 9 is the movement top and 
bottom, and f. 10 is fixed in the centre (see following pages for fixing). Fig. 1 1 is 
the Dolphin Hinge for secretaire flaps (the dotted lines show alternative shape, 
see p. 172), and f. 12 is the Piano Hinge, made in lengths from 5 in. to 4 ft. On 
p. 263, f. 1 shows the Quadrant Hinge, very useful for flaps and lids, and only 
where it is possible to cut away the stuff for the quadrant to pass. Fig. 2 the 
Wardrobe Hinge, with one wide flange to screw to the carcase end for extra 
strength, and f. 3, 4, 5, and 6 are types of link joint or Card Table hinges for 

260 



CONSTRUCTIONAL BRASSWORK, MOVEMENTS, AND FITTINGS 261 




Types of Hinges. 



262 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

edge and top use, leaving a flush surface on either, as against a knuckle in a 
butt hinge. Fig. 7 the Centre Hinge, with hole plate for the carcase and pin 
plate for the door, and f. 8 is a similar hinge with a neck. These centre hinges 
are used for wardrobe and other heavy doors which are fitted with plate glass, 
and the diagrams on p. 266 show methods of centring and fixing. Fig. 9 shows 
a Wardrobe Stay which is cut for space. The thumb-screw would be reversed, 
and screwed up under the top, and the end plate is also screwed on the door. 
Figs. 10 and 1 1 are the Ball and Socket movements for toilet glasses, and f. 12 
is the Screw used for similar purposes on smaller swing mirrors of the Hepple- 
white type. Dovetail Centres are also used as a movement on common work. 

Spring Catches are shown in f. 13, which is the " Bullet," or " Bale," and 
14, the French catch, both suitable for pedestal and small cupboard doors when 
a lock is not required. " Thumb Catches " are used to fix upright secretaire 
flaps. 

Locks. — These vary in size, and are usually measured on the length, and 
are " right" and "left hand " as needed, terms used to indicate the direction in 
which the bolt shoots. Fig. 15 is a "Cut" cupboard lock, made to cut flush 
into the stile, whilst f. 16 is a Straight cupboard lock to screw on to the stile, 
in which the bolt shoots either hand. Fig. 17 shows a Pedestal or Linkplate 
lock, used where the door shuts on to the carcase end, and the bolt shoots 
through the link, whilst f. 18 is another of a similar make when the lock is cut 
on the carcase end. The other way up it serves also as a Desk Lock. The 
links are shown, but in the lock they would not be seen. Fig. 19, the " Bird's 
Beak " lock, sunk in a mortise, and used sometimes for piano and other falls. 
When locked the beaks spring into holes in the plate. Fig. 20 is the Box 
Lock, with a similar action to the one used on desks, and f. 21 shows a simple 
fastening known as Cupboard Turn or Button. Till Locks have a single bolt, 
which shoots up into the bearer above, and are used as drawer locks. Patent 
Piano Locks have a similar action, but the bolt is notched to take two spring 
catches up in the plate. A specially good type of lock is the Brahma, with a 
nozzle which forms a plate for the keyhole. As a rule keyholes are protected 
with escutcheons to fit the hole or plates which are fixed around them. Ward- 
robe locks have a shooting bolt for key, and a spring catch for the handle. The 
main thing to remember in cutting locks on, is to carefully gauge the centre of 
the pin for the keyhole, which should be bored first. 

Bolts are " flush " when the barrel is not seen and the plate is level with 
the face, and open and " straight," or " necked," when the barrel is outside. 
Spring Bolts screw on the face, and are cased to cover the spring. 

Castors. — Round Socket for turned, and square for tapering legs, with 
brass or china wheels. Others have a screw with a plate and ring, whilst large 
ones have only an iron pin with a plate for screwing. A new patent is the 
Ball Castor, which moves in a cup on ball bearings. 

Quadrant Stays. — Fig. 1, p. 264, shows an ordinary quadrant used for flaps 
and falls. They are made in various sizes, and some have a spring near the end 
of the plate, which has to be nipped in before the flap can be closed. Care must 
be taken to fix it at the same radius, or trouble will follow. 

Rule Joint Stays, f. 2. — This is the more common form of support or 



CONSTRUCTIONAL BRASSWORK, MOVEMENTS, AND FITTINGS 263 




Types of Hinges, Glass Movements, Locks, &c. 



264 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




I. Quadrant Support for Flaps. 



" stay " for a flap, and takes its name from the centre joint, which is similar to 
a rule. To fix it, take half the length from pin to pin and mark off from A to B 
and C, then fix the plate at C and draw a square line from B as shown. The centre 
must then be fixed exactly on the line. The diagram may be read as a fall- 
down flap or box lid raised, but the same method in fixing must be adopted. 

The dotted part shows 
the flap closed. Heavy, 
square flaps are sup- 
ported by a long stay 
of thin metal, made in a 
similar way to a steel 
rule, or by a knee iron 
which shuts up behind 
a pilaster, see f. I op- 
posite. 

Cylinder Fall 
Movements. — These 
vary according to the job. 
Two simple methods are 
used, shown on next 
page. Fig. 2 opposite is 
an angle orquadrant iron 
cut out of thin fV-in. 
stuff, and fixed to the 
radius as indicated, the 
centre working on a pin 
in a plate. Fig. 3 is the 
Fan Iron, cut out of 
sheet stuff, and in both 
cases the end of the fall 
is rebated to take the 
thickness. With the fan 
iron it is necessary to 
fix a thin false end on 
the inside to cover the 
iron. Either can be 
worked with or without 
a tongue on the end of 
the fall, and if there is a 
sliding flap it can only 
be pulled out after the 
fall is up. Fig. 4 shows 
a more complex but combined movement, which is known as the Slotted Bar. 
Sheraton appears to have been the first to adopt it. The bar is of ,V m - iron > 
and about 1] in. wide. To find the centre for an)" given radius to the fall, draw 
the bar in position when both fall and slider are shut, as seen at A, and repeat 
the drawing when both are open, as at C. Where they cross will be the centre, 




2. Method of Fixing Rule Joint Stay. 



CONSTRUCTIONAL BRASSWORK, MOVEMENTS, AND FITTINGS 265 



/ 



/ 




/ 
/ 



1. Method of Supporting Heavy Flaps. 



and if set out again half way as 
at B, the length of the lower slot 
is obtained, whilst A gives the 
lower end of the upper slot and 
B the top end. A small plate 
fixes the centre pivot, and a 
filling-in end will be necessary 
to cover the bar. A tongue on 
the fall is preferable. The 
shaded portion shows the posi- 
tion of the stationery case, and 
the diagram illustrates the move- 
ment for the secretaire cabinet 
in the chapter on " Table Work." 
The lower carcase 
might have to be 
cut away to take 
the length of the 
bar, but this de- 
pends on thickness 
of rail, and care 
must be taken to 
m ake the slots work 
smoothly on the 
pivot. This move- 
ment works best 
when the fall is 
less than a quarter 
of a circle. Ameri- 
can roll-top desks 
have no " move- 
ment," but work 
in a groove like 
a tambour. The 
ogee or bead slips 
are rebated one in 
the other, f. 1, next 
page, and are wired, 
hinged, or glued on 
to canvas. Other 
movements, which 
are nearly all 
patents, are screws 
for music - stools, 
centres for revolv- 
ing chairs and dumb waiters, reversible joints for shaving mirrors and bed tables 
(see chapter on " Tables "), reading flaps for chairs, automatic lockings (see chapter 




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Quadrant Iron for Cylinder Falls. 



Fan Iron for Cylinder Falls. 




«^^^^^^^^ 



4. Slotted Bar Movement for Cylinder Falls. 



266 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




i. "Tambours" for Roll-top Desks. 




2. Fixing a Butt Hinge 
on Door inside 
Carcase End. 



3. Butt Hinge fixed 
on to Carcase End. 



on " Office Work "), and harlequin table movements, as well as a number of patent 
devices for invalid furniture and office cases. Extending screws for dining-tables 

are described in the chapter on "Tables." 
On some old "diners" brass clips were 
used to lock the extra leaves together. 
An iron bracket has taken the place of 
the wooden one, with a finger joint, 
for cheap Pembroke tables. Special 
methods of supporting shelves are illus- 
trated in chapter on " Carcase Work." 
Tiles are fixed to vvashstand backs with 
a special screw, and pivots are made 
for card table tops. The quality of all 
brasswork varies with the price ; cheap 
locks are made with iron cases and 
brass facings, and iron is often faced 
up with very thin brass. 

Setting out and Centring Hinges. 
— A reference to the double sheet of 
shutting joints will at once illustrate the 
different types of centres for hinges, 
and fixing becomes a simple matter if due 
thought is given to the setting out before any 
fixing is begun. In ordinary butts the gauge 
should be set from the outside of the flange 
to the centre of the pin, and a line gauged 
on the edge to cut to. Fig. 2 above shows the 
" butt " used on a door when fixed inside the 
carcase. The knuckle will show full, and the 
whole thickness of the hinge at the knuckle is 
cut into the door stile, but it tapers towards the 
back to the thickness of the flange, whilst the 
opposite flange is let in flush as shown. On 
cheap work the whole hinge would be cut into 
the door and the carcase flange screwed on the 
face. The gauge mark on the carcase is the same 
as that on the door, plus the distance the door 
stands in. Fig. 3 shows a similar hinge when the 
door shuts on to the carcase end and when the cut- 
ting in is equalised. In this case the door would 
swing round clear of the end. Fig. 4 is the plan 
of a centre hinge showing a method of finding 
the centre. Divide the thickness of the stile into 
three as seen in the dotted lines. From the 
corner of the rebate A strike a mitre line to cut 
the first dividing line, which gives the point, and if this point is taken along 
the line about an eighth of an inch it will ensure a clearance when open, as the 




4- 



Method of Finding Centre and 
Fixing Centre Hinge. 




5- 



Method of Fixing a Neck 
Centre Hintre. 



CONSTRUCTIONAL BRASSWORK, MOVEMENTS, AND FITTINGS 267 




1. Patent Rule Joint Hinge. 



diagram shows. The same centre will give the rounding for the back of the 
door. Fig. 5 opposite gives the neck centre, used when it is necessary to clear 
a break or moulding on the carcase or pilaster. The centre is usually on the 
front line of the door, but its position depends entirely on the projection to 
be cleared. In both cases it is safest to make a zinc template from which 
both top and bottom parts can be marked off. The special rule joint hinge 
shown in f. 1 below is much simpler than the ordinary flat one. In this the 
flange is bent underneath instead of being cut into the wood, thus saving the 
danger of an open joint when the flap 
is down, and allowing any variation in 
the depth of the square. The hinge was 
invented by Mr W. E. Degerdon, and 
a table maker will at once see its prac- 
tical advantages. The setting out for 
both hinges is the same, and the centre 
must be under the square as shown, 
which a gauge line underneath the top 
will give. The centre for striking the joint 

is from the intersection of the square line and the thickness line of the hinge. 
It is usual to cut the small flange into the top first, and then cramp the joint up 
tight and mark off the opposite flange. Fig. 2 shows top and centre parts of the 
knuckle joint screen hinge. A the plan of the top, and B showing the double 
joint and pin, with c the centre in which the piece D is mortised into the 
stile of the screen and pinned through, the knuckle part being cross-cut to allow 
this to be fixed. In another make of this hinge the flange D is cut into the 

edge of the stile and screwed in an upright 
position. The patent reversible screen hinge 
has made the above somewhat out of date 
and is much simpler to fix, but no other screen 
hinge gives such a good draught- proof joint. 

Decorative Metal Work. — Up to the 
seventeenth century most of the metal fittings 
on furniture were of iron. Hinges, lock plates, 
handles, &c, were highly decorative in character, 
but the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries 
brought other woods than oak into use, and 
brasswork came into general favour. Much 
good work is often spoiled by bad metal fit- 
tings, and handles often go a long way to 
make or mar a job. Handles have varied in shape with the periods of furni- 
ture, and we have Louis, Empire, Queen Anne, Chippendale, Adam, and 
other forms of metal work. In the nineteenth century wooden knobs were 
prevalent, but it has long since been the custom in the metal trades, which 
cater for cabinetwork, to produce fittings in "style," and it is for this 
reason that we give a selection of handles on the next page. Fig. 1 shows a 
Louis XVI. knob, full size. Fig. 2 is a plan of the top, and f. 3 the back 
plate with section below. The decoration is of a type much imitated by the 




Top and Centre of Knuckle Joint 
Screen Hinge. 



:63 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




Types of French Handles. 



CONSTRUCTIONAL BRASSWORK, MOVEMENTS, AND FITTINGS 269 

English furniture designers of the eighteenth century, especially Adam. The 
knob would be fixed by the spindle going right through and fastened with a 
nut. Fig. 4, p. 268, is a ring drop handle of the same period, but later, the handle 
itself being rectangular in section as seen by the diagram underneath. Fig. 5 
is a Louis XV. type with Rococo forms, which were sometimes also copied by 
Chippendale. The illustrations were drawn from the actual examples kindly 
lent for the purpose by Messrs Shirley & Co., of Percy Street, London, as was 
also f. 3 in the next set on p. 270, where examples from pieces of furniture in 
the Museum at South Kensington are shown. Fig. 1 is a silver handle from 
the famous eighteenth-century satinwood toilet table, painted by Angelica 
Kauffmann. The back plate is slightly raised in the centre and delicately 
engraved with a swag. Fig. 2 is from the same cabinet on a smaller drawer. 
Both are extremely dainty and all that a handle should be. Fig. 3 is of 
modern make, but based on one of early eighteenth-century date. Fig. 4, a 
small keyhole plate from an old bureau, and f. 5, a cabinet door handle, 
evidently taken from an iron one of an earlier period. The handle in f. 6 is 
typical of the later eighteenth century, and is taken from an old mahogany 
card table. The spindles go right through the drawer front and fix with a nut 
on the inside. The shape of the drop and back plate vary considerably, as only 
single sets for each job would be made. Figs. 7, 8, and 9 are peculiar to the 
Queen Anne furniture, and sometimes the drop is made of solid metal, but 7 is 
often of thin stuff and halved. An escutcheon or keyhole plate is shown in 
f. 10, and f. 1 1 is a small brass handle from an old bureau. Needless to say 
that scores of patterns might be given, but those shown are typical. Iron 
handles are again coming into favour, and oxidised copper and white metal are 
also in demand. Drawer " pulls " are fixed, and are both sunk into or screwed 
on the face. " Flush handles " are usually sunk into the plate which is cut into 
a drawer front or sliding door level with the face. Both are chiefly used in office 
and shop furniture. Special handles are made for chair backs and butlers' trays. 
Mounts are generally of brass, and vary from the richly modelled " ormolu " 
mounts on the French work to simple rings, caps, and bases, for clock case and 
other columns. "Ormolu" is an alloy of various metals, and the elaborate 
mounts made of it are best illustrated on the Marie Antoinette toilet table in 
the chapter on " Styles." The cabriole leg lent itself to such decoration, but 
this style of metal ornament has not found much demand in England. 
Galleries are often used on the tops of small tables and cabinets, and brass 
mouldings fixed round the edges of table tops, of which examples are given 
in the chapter on " Table Work." In eighteenth-century work brass " grilles " of 
thin wire or heavier metal were used in doors of cabinets and bookcases, and 
the shutting bead was often of brass. Sheraton, Hepplewhite, and Adam side- 
boards were fitted with brass rails at the back (see the Adam sideboard, p. 153), 
and the grandfather clock cases of the same period often mounted with a 
quantity of brass. Galleries, sideboard rails, beads, and mounts of various 
description are to be obtained ready for use, but on special jobs they have to 
be made. Picture and window rods, cornice poles, portiere rods, wardrobe 
hooks and yokes, and brass towel rails, with all furnishing fittings, come more 
or less into outdoor fitters' work. 



270 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




Types of Drop Handi.ks. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
MACHINE TOOLS AND MACHINING-MOULD1NGS. 

Machines, Hand and Power, Planing, Thicknessing, Mortising, Dovetailing, Grooving, 
Moulding, Jointing, Mitreing, Boring — Saws, Circular, Band, Frame, Fret — -Lathes 
and Lathework — Examples of Mouldings, Classic, Gothic, French, Jacobean, 
Eighteenth Century. 

MACHINERY now plays an important part in the production of furniture. It 
has introduced a new type of workman now known as a machinist, and another 
who is a "fitter up" of the work turned out by the machine. Much has been 
said both for and against machinery, but there must always remain a very large 
residue of work for the skilled cabinetmaker which the machine can never do- 
Hand machines are chiefly confined to small circular saws, worked with handle 
or treadle ; " fret " or " scroll " saws of the American type, small lathes, and 
mortising machines. They are all valuable in a small shop where power is not 
obtainable, but since the advent of the electric motor these hand machines 
are not so much in demand. The small circular saw with a rising table and 
boring attachment is one of the most useful machines in a shop, for apart from 
the usual sawing it can be utilised for cutting grooves, rebates, and starting 
tenons, whilst the boring attachment saves time in dowelled work. 

It would take up too much valuable space to give illustrations of all the 
machines used, and though a knowledge of the uses of such should come within the 
cabinetmaker's experience, it must be said that they are quite secondary to 
his need for skill and resource at the bench. The three examples illustrated 
are made by Messrs Wilson Bros., Holbeck, Leeds, who have kindly lent 
the photographs for reproduction. The band saw on Plate XLIL, p. 272, is 
made on the latest improvements, fitted with ball bearings which reduce 
the strain and are dust-proof, both values which increase the life of a 
machine. Both wheels are covered with rubber, and the table cants, and 
has an extension. Such a saw is indispensable in a machine shop. On the 
same Plate a " hand feed planing, jointing, and moulding machine " is shown 
for high speed running. Besides planing and surfacing, this machine does 
jointing, chamfering, and rebating, and sticking light mouldings such as 
sash bars, &c. The "circular saw" shown on Plate XLIIL, p. 273, has a 
rack rising top and self-acting feed, and is fitted with an adjustable canting 
fence. It is suitable for tenoning, ripping, and cross-cutting, grooving, tongue- 
ing, and moulding, with the addition of a cutter block. This firm also 
supplies the patent " chain " and " hollow chisel " mortising machine. The 
chain works on the principle of a dredger, and cuts a very clean mortise 
with a circular finish at the base, and the " hollow chisel " is an ingenious an d 



272 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

simple device which cuts a straight square mortise with an upright or horizontal 
motion. A twist bit is encased in the chisel which has open sides to clear the 
core, and the action in feeding is simple and easy. " The vertical spindle " 
moulding machine is a great time saver, especially on curved work, but on 
straight intersections, such as the mould of a wardrobe door, the corners have 
to be finished by hand. 

Among the later additions to wood-working machinery are the " dovetailing " 
and "sand-papering" machines. For the former Messrs Wilson have a handy 
apparatus which fixes to the "spindle" table. The dovetail cutter is inserted 
into the top of the moulding spindle, and the apparatus can be easily fixed to 
other makers' machines. It is specially suitable for drawer work. The sand 
papering is done on a divided flat table, under which a large drum revolves 
flush with the table top. The sections of the table are easily moved back 
when the paper has to be renewed on the drum. Tenoning tools are now 
made to fix to an ordinary hand mortiser, and the tendency is towards com- 
bination in machines, and there is one known as the " General Woodworker." It 
combines a band, circular, and fret saws, and mortising, boring, and moulding 
machines. It is of necessity a heavy machine, but such a combination econo- 
mises the space considerably. Overhead fret saws are now the rule, an im- 
provement which allows stuff of any width to be cut. Small masters usually 
have all machine work done out at the mill, for it is only where there is a big 
output that machinery on a large scale can be laid down, but electric power is 
so convenient now that a small motor can be fixed to a saw bench or a lathe 
with both economy and convenience. 

Lathes are run by foot and power. A convenient size for a foot lathe 
would be a 4 ft. 6 in. bed, to take a table leg between the centres. Cone 
bearings are used on the best lathes, and " gut " bands, with a four-speed 
driving wheel, and cone pulley. Special " chucks " are made for " oval " and 
"square" turning, the latter being known as " thurmed." To thurm on a small 
lathe the stuff must be fixed on a wheel, so that only one side of it meets the 
chisel, but on a larger machine it is fixed to a " drum,'' and the larger the 
drum the nearer to a square the turning will be, but it is never dead square 
in section. Chucks are made to turn various shapes, and fancy turning, twists, 
&c, are done with " eccentric " chucks and cutters. Turning tools, chisels, and 
gouges are sold in sets of eight, up to I in., or singly as required. 

MOULDINGS. 

Mouldings are said to be " stuck " when worked on the solid ; " bolection " 
when rebated, and laid on the angle, and are consequently above the 
face frame ; " bedded " when laid in a groove ; or " housed " and rebated 
when glued in a rebate with a long and short shoulder to the frame. All 
these types are illustrated in the chapter on "Joints and their Applications." 
Mouldings " project " as in a cornice above the eye, and " recede " in plinths, 
but are generally both on a surbase or table part. Almost any section can be 
worked with the " hollow and round " hand planes, or with a " scratch " (see 
" Workshop Practice "), and where there is an undercut or recessed " member," 



X 
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X 

u 

55 

W 

pq 



w 



O 





O 

o 
z 



H 
W 

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MOULDINGS— TURNING 



273 




Types of Mouldings. 



274 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 







mw/MW 



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rORAASOF ASTRAGAL or BLAD5 



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Types of Mouldings. 



MOULDINGS— TURNING 275 

as in the French mouldings of the Rococo period, the machine can only work 
the two faces or part of the recess, and the finishing must be done by hand. 

Types of Mouldings are shown on pp. 273 and 274. The first two rows 
are the Grecian and Roman, based on circle and elliptic lines, from which all 
others are developed or varied. In Gothic sections the hollows are deeply 
recessed. Louis XIV. mouldings follow the classic details, as did the earlier 
designers of Francis I. and Henry II. in what is known as " Renaissance " or 
Historic French. Louis XV. mouldings are peculiar for their " thumb " or 
" nosy " projections and deep recesses, whilst those of the Louis XVI. period 
are more severe, and of simpler classic. On the second page, our own Eliza- 
bethan and Jacobean followed the classic models with reserve, and adapted them 
to the special position. Chippendale cornices, &c, are based on the classic 
hollows, rounds, ogees, and astragal ; and Hepplewhite introduced " enrich- 
ments " as a special feature in his cornices. Sheraton was sparing with 
mouldings, but where he did use them, in cornices or surbase, they were plainer 
than those of his contemporaries. R. and J. Adam used refined and delicate 
details of a classic character. The curved, or " bulge," frieze of Queen Anne 
is peculiar to that period of English work. Types of the " astragal " or " bead " 
are shown with some sections of barred door mouldings. When a series of 
beads are worked together without a " quirk," they are called " reeds," whilst a 
number of rebates or steps of equal depth are known as "annulets." When 
the bead has a square or " step " added to it, it becomes a " torus," and all 
these names, with " fillet," " flute," and " facia," are derived from the classic 
architecture and vary in their applications. Types of mouldings suitable for 
all positions will be found associated with the special designs throughout the 
book, and it is obvious that no hard and fast line can be drawn in the design 
of details which lend themselves to such an infinite variety of forms. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

PANELLING AND FITMENTS. 

Early Types of Panelling — Preparation of Walls — Plugging and Battening — Fixing 
Grounds for Tapestry Hangings — Methods of fixing for Dados, Fireplaces, Skirting 
Boards, Ceilings, Cornices, &c. — Fitment and Fireplace for Georgian Room, full 
Details of Cornice and other Moulds — Gothic Framing, Tracery, Linen-fold 
Panels — Patent Mansfield Robinson Panelling — Design for Colonial Adams 
Room with Fitments — Details of Elizabethan Types of Panelling, &c. — Sheraton 
Fireplace and Mantel — Georgian Fireplace and Mantel, with Complete Details — 
Scale Drawing of Jacobean Room with Section of Cornice Frieze, Panel, and 
Base Moulds, &c. — Photograph of Room at Versailles — Details of French 
Curved Panelling. 

From the fifteenth to the eighteenth centuries it was the custom to cover the 
walls of rooms, galleries, halls, and corridors with oak panelling. In the earlier 
types the panels were small (see Plate XLV.), but in the seventeenth century 
the size was increased. Sometimes only two-thirds of the height of the wall 
was covered, which allowed for a plaster frieze, but as a rule the panelling reached 
to the ceiling, which was either of open beams or of decorative plasterwork. 
Towards the end of the Georgian period, the custom declined, and wall-papers 
or silk damask coverings were in vogue, a fashion which continued to the 
latter part of the Victorian era. The taste and fashion about that time 
reverted again to fitted rooms, due, no doubt, in some measure to the demand 
for a suitable environment and background for costly objects of art, the collecting 
of which had begun to assume considerable proportions. Modern fitments 
are, therefore, a revival of early work, and many of them are copies of, or 
based upon old examples. Probably more has been done in the direction 
of panelled libraries and dining-rooms, and the movement has extended to 
fitted bedrooms. To obtain a thorough knowledge of decorative interior 
woodwork, the actual measuring and drawing of good examples in national 
museums and mansions cannot be too strongly urged upon the student. A 
design for a drawing-room with panelling and a fitted fireplace is shown on 
Plate XLVII., photographed from a drawing which would be submitted to 
a prospective customer. The necessary procedure in executing such work is 
described in the following pages, and the examples shown are those which 
introduce the maximum amount of constructive and decorative detail con- 
sistent with limited space. 

276 



PANELLING AND FITMENTS 



277 



Taking Measurements, Templates, and necessary particulars before pro- 
ceeding with the work, are described in Chapter X., and the setting out of rods 
and preparation of working drawings are also dealt with there. Before dealing 
with the general constructive details in fit- 
ments, we must first consider the preparation 
of walls for receiving panelling, &c. In most 
cases brick walls are the foundation, and when 
these have any suspicion of dampness about 
them — and always with new buildings — they 
should be thoroughly covered with several 
coats of a preparation consisting of varnish 
bottoms and paint. Tar also is used as a damp 
preventive on brick walls. In addition to this, 
the backs of the framing are also painted, which 
prevents the damp penetrating into the wood, 
causing it to swell and buckle. All fixings 
must necessarily be secret, and this can gener- 
ally be effected by firmly screwing the framings 
before fixing the mouldings, or by slot screwing 
as described in Chapter IV., and further illus- 
trated in its application to a fireplace (see f. 1). 
Brick walls must be well plugged at intervals 
to provide a secure holding for screws. The 
plugs are shaped as in f. 2, and the pockets are 
cut with a strong, cold chisel, or "plugging" 
chisel, in the brickwork, when the plug is driven 
in flush with the surface. When cut as shown, 
the plug is forced into a screw-like position and 
seldom works loose. The least effective form of 
plug is the square taper type, which has a tend- 
ency to draw out of the hole when nailing or screwing. Concrete or cement facings 
cover some walls, and fixings are usually obtained by plugging as described 
above. " Grounds " are necessary when tapestry or damask panels are required. 

These grounds are prepared from 3 by f in. 
yellow deal, and are also known as battens. 
The exigencies of the work sometimes de- 
mand the grounds to be fixed flush with the 
wall surface, and this is accomplished by 
cutting or " chasing " away the cement to 
receive the batten, which is then cemented 
in flush (see f. 3), and slightly bevelled in 
section to form a key. Before fixing door 
linings, the battens are fixed round each 
opening, and screwed to plugs in wall, the inside edge being bevelled to form 
a key for plaster (see f. next page). The architraves can then be put 
together, either " framed up " or " mitred and keyed " and slot screwed into 
position. Wide architraves necessitate the use of a wider ground, and this is 




HALF VIEW 
SHEWING • 
SLOT- SCREW 
FIXING- ON - 
FIREPLACE- 




278 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



obtained by " framing" the grounds and fixing as illustrated in f. below. As 
a further illustration of the process of plugging and battening walls see opposite 
page. This sketch shows grounds for tapestry above a dado, and also provides 
the necessary foundation for fixing the pilasters, mouldings, and cornice. The 
position of plugs for panelling is also indicated. Testing with plumb line and 
level is necessary for groundworks, the inequalities of wall line being adjusted 
by packing out the battens or removing superfluous wood with a plane. 

Preparation of Ceilings for Panelling. — Beam Ceilings, composed of 
main beams, divided by smaller ones, do not require any special treatment. 
In modern work their use is restricted to casing round the girders, the 
modern successors in constructive building work to the old-fashioned oak or 
chestnut beams which supported the floors. The joists provide an excellent 
fixing, and the cased beams are pocket-screwed as illustrated in the section 
of main beam in f. 1, p. 280. The cross beams are shouldered over the 

rebates, and wall plates fitted as shown. Mould- 
ings complete the work, when scribed round all 
the openings. 

Framed Ceilings consist of suitably designed 
framing, with carved or inlaid panels, the openings 
|jpjl|[^ J PUn being accentuated by carved or decorated mould- 

ings. Numerous examples could be given of 
framed ceilings involving special constructive 
features, but space will not permit. A description 
only of the preparation can be attempted. The 
frames are made and fixed in segments fixed to 
the rafters, and richly carved bosses are generally 
introduced as a decorative feature to conceal 
the screw fixings. Gilt framing with silvered 
Venetian glass panels is an uncommon and 
effective treatment. Long lengths of moulding 
are first fixed one way of the ceiling, and then 
squares or rectangles are formed by scribing 
short lengths between them. The panels are 
composed of four pieces of glass, resting upon rebates of moulding. The 
corners are secured at the centre with a carved patera, and the scribed 
joints of mouldings are concealed with bosses scribed over the mouldings and 
screwed to the ceiling. Screws in work of this character arc very frequent, 
and the ceiling must first be boarded with l-in. stuff, firmly screwed to the 
rafters. 

Fixing Fireplaces and Panelling. — Slot screwing is essentially a fixer's 
joint, and much used in interior work. The process of fixing by this method 
is as follows :— First decide and mark the position of the job and screws for 
this secret fixing, and scribe the work to fit the wall properly, then plug the 
wall and turn screws into plugs until they project about § in. from the surface. 
Dab the head with moist lamp black, and place the job in position, pressing it 
against the heads, which will leave black marks ; then bore a hole for head 
about £ in. lower than the mark, and cut the slot to receive same (see p. 277). 




PANELLING AND FITMENTS 



279 



Replace the work, entering the heads in the prepared holes, and force it down, 
completing the job by additional pocket screwing where possible. 

Panelling is made and fixed in segments, which are so arranged as to 
joint behind pilasters or mouldings. When extra long lengths are required a 




View showing Arrangement" of Grounds and Plugs for Panelled Room. 



convenient position is decided upon, and the rails are tenoned dry and levelled 
off. The framing can then be separated and finally glued up when fixing. 

Glueing up Framing in long lengths is accomplished by improvised 
cramps composed of scantlings, with pieces fixed at either end ; folding wedges 
are inserted at one end, and when tightened, effect the necessary pressure. This 



280 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

method is only resorted to where cramps with lengthening bars are not available. 
All sections or pieces of framing should have the stiles carried right through, 
and the bottom rails are made wider to provide fixing for the skirting. The 
projecting horns on stiles are easily scribed to floor line, and the open spaces under 
the rail should be made up at intervals with blocks fixed to the wall. For simple 
skirting it is only necessary to make up a surface line of framing, but skirting of a 




CoR-IMIGE 
MOLD • • 



Sect ion -op 
maim • be>=im • 





HflLF-SEGTON-OF 
CROSS • BEAMS • 



PANELLED 
SOFFIT • • 



VIEW SHEWING-CONSTfcUC- 
TION OF- BEAM CEILING- • • 



heavier type, tongued together as illustrated in f. 2, demands shouldered bracket 
pieces, seen in diagram. The dado moulding can generally be arranged as illus- 
trated in f. 1 on opposite page, so concealing the pocket screwing used at top 
of framing. 

Pelleting.— Painted work does not demand the more expensive methods 
of fixing as detailed above. Screws may be sunk into the surface of the 
work, and the holes stopped by glueing pellets into them, see chapter on 

" Workshop Practice " 
for detailed description. 
Although this is essen- 
tially a device for 
painted work, it is also 
resorted to in polished 
fixtures, when other 
methods are impractic- 
able. 

Building up and 
Fixing Cornices. — The 
constructions illustrated 
on p. 285 show the ar- 
rangement of these de- 
tails. Built-up cornices 
are mostly used in 
French decorative in- 
terior work, especially the "bracket" and "coved "varieties; a good example 
of the first named is illustrated in the reproduction on Plate XLVI. of the 
Marie Antoinette boudoir at Versailles. It is only possible here to illustrate 
one particular type of French panelling which embraces some common con- 
structional details. The example shown on p. 294 is mortised and tenoned 




VIEW- SHEWING- 
MAKING -UP BLOCKS 
FOR.- SKIRTING- 

2. 




PANELLING AND FITMENTS 



together with long and short shouldered joints, the dotted line indicating the 
shape of the rails before glueing up the work ; the curves are then cut to the 
inside line, and the rails are rebated to receive the mouldings. 
Carving in French work is a special feature, and is generally 
cut out and glued on to the surface before being carved up. 

Arrangement and Details of Panelling.— The panelling 
of each period has some peculiar and characteristic detail. 
Thus in Gothic woodwork we find the " mason's mitre," de- 
scribed in Chapter IV. ; in Tudor and Elizabethan panelling, 
the bevelled or splayed bottom edge on the rails, see photo 
on this page, as distinct from Jacobean framing, which is 
mitred all round the openings ; and with French work there is 
" Sloper nose" moulding. There is, indeed, an endless variety, i- 

but space forbids a larger treatment of them. 

Fig. 2 is a photograph of panelling of the Flenry VIII. period, sometimes 
called " Holbein " panelling, and represents a type of work done at the commence- 





!. An Example of Panelling from an Old House at Waltham Abbey. 
Now in the Victoria and Albert Museum. 



ment of the English Renaissance, which was further developed in the Elizabethan 
and Jacobean periods. The portcullis, Tudor rose, and heraldic centres to the 



282 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



medallions, and the scroll-like ornament, are but steps to the decorative details 
of a later date. 

Marking for Fixing - . — Each section of panelling is marked in alphabetical 
order with a stencil or crayon to correspond with the similarly marked scale 
drawings and designs ; its position is then understood — an important detail 
when the fixing is conducted by labour engaged locally. 



Elizabethan and Jacobean Detail. 

Both the above periods were marked by details in turning, strapwork, 
low relief carving, and mouldings. Some are shown in the five panelled 




Elizabethan and Jacobean Details. 

framing on the opposite page, the centre panels being either rectangular, 
square, diamond, elliptic, or circular in shape. The carved decoration shown 



PANELLING AND FITMENTS 



283 





!9p 

i 



t 





284 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

in the right-hand corner of the page, is termed " Nulling," and was much used 
in frieze rails of panelling and furniture. Strapwork detail with rose centres 
taken from pilasters, constantly recurs in modern Elizabethan work. The 
semi-headed panel centre shown on p. 282 is another peculiar feature of this 
period, either with strapwork pilaster or moulded and carved leaf decoration. 
The split turning and mouldings shown are taken from Jacobean work. Refer- 
ence to p. 288 will indicate additional detail of this period. 



Fitment— Colonial Georgian (Plate xliv.). 

The adaptation of Colonial Georgian interiors to drawing and bed rooms 
is an effective treatment when finished to a white colour, and also with silk wall 
panels, which contrast excellently with the rich tones of eighteenth-century 
furniture. The finely curved mouldings with fretwork traceries, the fluted 




fascias, frieze overlays, and turned decoration on corners and muntings, project 
delicately graded shadows upon the groundworks. On p. 285 the enlarged 
details show the method of building up a "coved" cornice; this is rebated 
over the panelled framing, and screwed through the beaded moulding covering 
the screw heads ; the small projection obtained by housing this moulding 
is, as shown, an additional advantage, and does not accentuate the union of 
panelling and cornice. Blocks or brackets are fixed at intervals in the corner 
of the room to which the top piece of the cove is screwed, and the top 
member is then mitred round and fixed to the cornice. The lower part of 
panelling or " dadoing " is made with long and short shoulder mortise and tenon 
joints, with a moulding mitred round, see f. 3. Muntings are grooved before 
glueing up the frames, and the split turning "bead and reel" is glued in. The 
enlarged detail shows the construction of top frames, the moulding forming a 
rebate to receive the panes. Fluted decoration is worked by machining 6-ft. 



Plate XLIV. 




TORTION OF- fl DRAWING- • 
OR BEDROOM • FITMENT • • 
EXECUTED- INMAHOGflNY 
flND-ENAMELLED WHITE 



The DESl&N- BASED • 
ON • COLONIAL 

• GEORGIAN • 



Inches 

•a. o e< * o 

1 ii In li-H-rrt— 



■Scale • for.- elevation 

ANDPLAM 



IS. 15 

Feet • 



Part- plan- above ■ • 
indicates • floor.- une 



See- also- enlarged 

DETAILS • 




Design for Side of "Colonial Georgian" Room. 
(Desig)ied by Mr J. Hooper.) 



[To face fiage 284. 



PANELLING AND FITMENTS 



285 




Section • and • detail 

OF- DADO- MOULDING 



'Illlllllll 

lllllllllll 
lllllllllll 
Illlllllll 

'.CM II III 


^=^==Jj 


Pl|l|l|i 



DETAILS • • 
TWO -THIRDS 



Coved -Cor- 
nice -mold. 





Corner.- of -top 
- panelling • - 




Skirting 
v, mold • - 



Marble 
slip • • 




Details for Cornice, &c, in "Colonial Georgian" Roo.nj 



286 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 






lengths, about I ft. wide, and cutting to the width required ; this joints up flush 
with the corner blocks glued in corners ; turning is then mitred round the inside 
angles. " Ply " panels are an advantage with such constructive detail, and 
obviate the necessity of providing for panel shrinkage. The skirting is 
scribed and fixed to the horns of the framing, and finished by 
fixing the top moulding. Patterns at the corners are turned 
to the section shown, and carved to the drawing. Practically all 
the fixing is effected by screwing under the mouldings, and 
this should be borne in mind when setting out such panelling. 
n\n^ Door framings to harmonise with the decorative scheme are 

necessary in such work. With thick walls, panelled jamb linings 
and "soffit" or head linings are necessary. The soffit is fixed in 
position, being previously grooved to receive the jamb linings, see 
view on p. 284. The fronts of linings are made flush with grounds, 
and the architraves are fixed in the position shown in f. 1 and 2, 
p. 284, covering the joints. It is not unusual to make the outside 
of the door and jamb linings correspond with a decorative treat- 
ment in the corridor. The door is then faced up on one side with 
a suitable wood. 



B 



Gothic Panelling, &c. 



A portion of this type of panelling is shown opposite, which is 
suitable for dadoing, and can easily be extended to any height. 
Numerous antique examples about the country reach a height of 
four or five panels. The dado moulding is characteristic Gothic, as 
also is the centre sunk moulding in muntings, stopped against the 
rails. The rounded inside corners of framing are also essentially 
Gothic, and are a variation of the " mason's mitre," a very common 
detail in woodwork of this period. To execute such work, it is first 
necessary to mould the muntings before glueing up, but all mould- 
ings on stiles and rails are stopped, and completed as shown after 
the framing is levelled off ; this is best effected with carving gouges. 
Some masons' mitres are finished exactly the same as a plain mitre, 
with the mitre line quite straight. Pinned tenons are also a pleasing 
and strengthening feature of this work, similar to the Elizabethan. 
Linen-fold or parchment panels are also illustrated, and they are 
so-called because of their resemblance to these materials when 
folded. There is a paucity of information pertaining to these 
panels, but the enlarged details of English and Flemish origin, 
shown herewith, are excellent examples, and provide a sufficient 
basis for their production. To execute them, the panels are first moulded 
to the section shown, and carved to the design. As the ultimate effect de- 
pends largely upon the moulded section, it will be found a good plan to make 
a model of pine, moulded and carved until the required " feeling " is obtained, or 
modelled up in clay, either being used as a pattern when executing the wooden 



Section of the 
Mansfield- 
Robinson 
Patent Panel- 
ling. 



PANELLING AND FITMENTS 



287 



0^03 



ui 
. h 

>0 

in? 
zp 

om 




MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




Strapwork Turning and Recessed Detail in Elizabethan Work. 



PANELLING AND FITMENTS 289 

panels. A traceried rail is also shown in the panelling, which, in old work, was 
usually carved out of the solid, but modern conditions demand more economical 
methods, and it is usual to groove the rail to receive the fretted and carved 
overlay. The shapes are first cut upon a fret saw and " regulated " with files ; 
mouldings are worked upon a " spindle " machine, and the tracery is completed 
after being glued down to the groundwork. This method of procedure would 
also be followed in executing the traceried panel illustrated — an example of 
French Gothic work. Skirtings are not usual in Gothic panelling, and the 
fixing is best obtained by slot screwing to wall, a method previously dealt 
with in this chapter. An additional fixing would also be obtained by screwing 
through the rebate for dado moulding. The method of rebating dado 
moulding into the framing and using the top member to cover the joints is 
also utilised in other periods of panelling, and is a very effective constructive 
detail, for in addition to hiding the fixing, it economises material. An alternate 
method is to rebate the dado moulding, fitting it into a rebate as shown. 
Scribing is used for angle connections of the above, and is fully described 
in chapter on " Workshop Practice." 

Panelling is regarded as a fixture in a house, but a patent method which 
allows of its easy removal with other furniture was shown in a model cottage at 
the Franco-British Exhibition. It is known as the " Mansfield Robinson " 
panelling, after its inventor ; and although specially designed for small houses, 
it is being largely used in banks and other public buildings. The diagram, 
p. 286, shows a section of it, and illustrates the practical but simple method 
of fixing. A, B, and C are pine battens rebated on each edge, and screwed 
to a plugged wall. The stiles are grooved to drop over the rebate, and to 
tak v e the tongue of the rails ; the panel, shown darker, also drops into the 
groove formed by the rebate. The whole is built up from the floor, and fixed 
by the top moulding as shown. 



A Sheraton Fireplace (see next page). 

The drawings on the next page illustrate a typically modern example of 
a fireplace with Sheraton details which includes two china cupboards and a 
mirror above the shelf. Various broad constructive principles are illustrated, 
notably in the framed-up groundwork. A half-front elevation is shown of this, 
and dotted lines indicate the connecting lines of the " facings." Two parts are 
necessary, and after the groundwork of i^-in. pine is glued up, and centre space 
cut, J-in. facings must be mitred and glued to the groundwork, projecting f in. 
beyond the opening as a provision for the mirror. It should here be observed 
that all fireplace work must be screwed from the back wherever possible. This 
applies both to the mouldings and the " facings." An enlarged detail of the 
cupboard illustrates this portion, and the construction is indicated in the 
sectional details. The ends run right through, with bottom lap dovetailed up, 
and a false top slip dovetailed between. The outside ends fit over the back 
as indicated in the plan, and the cupboards are screwed from behind. Bottom 

19 



2 9 o MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




.siH»mHttiumiiiiuiimiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinniiii» 





PANELLING AND FITMENTS 



icjf 



parts should be made, whenever possible, in the solid. Marquetry panels are, 
however, frequently used, necessitating the use of veneer, but this practice is 
not recommended. The better plan is to introduce carving for decoration, 
and although this is a departure from the accepted detail of Sheraton work, 
it is certainly justified when the use of veneer is bad construction, owing to 
the action of adjacent heat. Methods of fixing are previously dealt with in 
this chapter. 

The sketch alongside illustrates an ordinary 
" mantel " of the Adam type, above which in the 
eighteenth century a wall mirror, or to use its 
present-day name "overmantel," was fixed, deli- 
cately carved in low relief and gilt— a con- 
siderable variation of the term now applied 
almost indiscriminately to the cheap "glass," 
"pillar," and "shelf" variety. 



Half ■ elevation • of- a . 
mantel- in • painted • pine 




A Georgian Fireplace (see next page). 

A modernised fireplace, designed on the 
lines of those produced during the latter part 
of the seventeenth century, is illustrated on 
next page, showing some characteristic propor- 
tions and details. The fireplaces of this period 
were of an architectural character, and this 
will be seen in the consoles, pedimental shelf, 

modillion cornice, and moulded details. Some of the finest examples produced 
during the latter half of the seventeenth century, and upon which the later 
Georgian work was based, were carved by the famous Grinling Gibbons, who 
worked for Sir Christopher Wren. His work is noted for its extremely natural 
detail, and superb execution. The carvings were chiefly executed in limewood, 
a material which lent itself admirably to a vigorous yet delicate treatment of 
strictly natural designs, such as birds, flowers, and cherubs, arranged in 
swags, festoons, and pendants. Fireplaces such as this example are used in 
conjunction with panelled interiors, with large panels in the framing, sur- 
rounded by wide carved mouldings. The construction of the lower part 
of the fireplace is of a straightforward character : a groundwork is framed 
together, and the pilasters and consoles are added, also the "tablet" at centre 
with the "egg and tongue" moulding mitred round, and completed by the 
addition of marble breast linings or " slips." The upper part embraces features 
not previously described in this chapter, and reference to the enlarged scale 
sectional view shows the side panels made with a wide top rail, tongued 
panel, and loose moulding. The wide rail at the top is made the full width, 
with a narrow bottom rail as shown in figure, connecting the sides together 
and thus forming a groundwork to receive the panelled breast. The breast 
extends from the frieze moulding to shelf line, framed together, and panelled 



292 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




Design and Details of "Georgian" Fireplace and Mantel. 
By Mr J. Hooper. 





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PANELLING AND FITMENTS 



293 



with a carved moulding glued to the frame with broken corners at the bottom. 
Numerous devices are resorted to for attaching the moulded frame surrounding 
an oil painting. The section shows the sketching 
frame for canvas, screwed to a moulded frame 
previously mitred and keyed together, inserted as 
a whole from the front, and readily removed if 
required. Another treatment is to screw the 
canvas frame on to the groundwork from the 
front, with a rebated frame made separately, 
fitting over the picture and screwed to breast. 
The painted decoration of this style of work is 
usually executed in white, contrasting admirably 
with richly coloured pictures introduced into the 
fireplace, and in some cases in the form of 
medallions attached to the panelling. Old ex- 
amples of this period were usually painted a cold green colour, relieved . at 
intervals by the application of gold leaf on the details. 



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A Jacobean Room. 

This example of panelling, said to be one of the finest productions of the 
seventeenth century, is in the Victoria and Albert Museum, removed there from 
the "Old Palace" of Bromley-by-Bovv, which was built in 1606. The panelling 
is of a later date. The proportions displayed in the panels, frieze, and pilasters 
are very fine, with delicate strapwork detail. The pilaster is much better than 
the frieze, the latter suffering somewhat in the unfortunate " butted " finish of the 
strapwork against the bracket plates. A curious feature of the framing in the 
original example is the panel mouldings ; these were worked upon the solid 
and not rebated into the framing as illustrated. Whilst the character and details 
of this room have been copied and preserved in the drawings, the construction 
introduced differs from the example, and is such as would be employed in exe- 
cuting a similar room at the present day. The section view shows construction 
of the bracket cornice. A pine block is fixed round the angles formed by the 
ceiling and wall, to receive the " soffit." This has another block glued level with 
front edge, and the fixing is obtained by screwing at back and front, which is 
concealed by the " frieze board " or "wall plate," and also by the cornice mould- 
ing at front. The panelling frames are next placed in position, slot screwed to 
the wall at intervals in the back to prevent possible sagging, and finally secured 
by screwing under the frieze moulding and pilasters. The strapwork pilasters 
occur at intervals round the room, and the framing is made in sections, arranged 
with wide stiles, so that a fixing for the pilasters can be obtained. No skirting 
is introduced with this example, and to prevent an unsightly space occurring 
under the bottom rail, due to shrinkage, a tongue should be left upon the 
framing and cut into the floor. This is effected by temporarily fixing a long 
strip of wood in the angles of the room, using this as a fence or guide for a 



294 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




Tvpes of French Panelling. 



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" block " saw, and cutting down yV in. deep. This piece is removed and another 
piece § in. wider is fixed, the § in. difference in width corresponding to the 
tongue in panelling ; when cut to desired depth the fence is again removed, 
and the core removed with a chisel. The sketch illustrates this process. The 
bracket plates would be added after the framing 
is fixed up, and completed by the addition of 
" soffit," "dentil mouldings," and brackets. Pilas- 
ter pedestals and shafts would follow next, slot 
screwed to the framing stiles, and the room 
completed by scribing round the frieze mouldings. 
An account of "scribing" and its application is 
given in chapter on " Workshop Practice." The 
" pinned " tenons are bored through close to the 
shoulders after glueing the framing up, and level- 
ling it off to the face surface. An alternate and effective finish can also be 
obtained by allowing them to project slightly beyond the surface, and in 
rounding them off. This necessitates their use after the framing is finished off. 




Cutting-groove 
for.- framing • 



CHAPTER XV. 

SPECIAL FURNITURE FOR SHOPS, OFFICES, 
AND MUSEUMS. 

Office Cabinets with Filing Drawers and Automatic Locking Action — Library Table with 
Reading Racks — Bedroom Furniture for the King's Sanatorium with special Hygienic 
Construction — Museum Show Case on Stand with Dust-proof Joints — Centre Case 
for Museum with Drawers — Cash Desk with Friction Roller Drawers— Office Cabinet 
with Sliding Doors — Office Stools and Chairs — Enclosed Washstand — Pedestal 
Print Stand for Museums with Practical Details of Construction, Movements, and 
Fittings. 

Introduction. 

The subject of this chapter is a large one, and is dealt with in as practical a 
manner as the limited space will allow. It is therefore confined to such articles 
of furniture as embrace special features in this class of work. The examples 
given in the following pages chiefly illustrate fittings for public, buildings, but 
the application of air-tight joints to furniture is a very necessary part of cabinet- 
work, and they are commonly used when dust-proof interiors are required. It is 
a debatable point whether an air-tight interior is best for the preservation of 
books. Some authorities favour the theory that a free access of air to the 
bindings acts as a preservative, and even insist on air holes being bored at 
frequent intervals in the backs. But air-proof interiors are executed in cases 
for the display of plate and valuable china. Dust-proof joints and their applica- 
tion to carcase work is dealt with in Chapter IV. Various office fittings are 
included in this chapter, involving special practice and actions. American 
roll-top desks are perhaps the most used of all office fittings, but they are 
almost exclusively of American production, the only special constructive feature 
being the tambour, illustrated in Chapter XII. 

The drawing opposite illustrates a suite of furniture designed by Messrs 
Heal & Son, for the King's Sanatorium at Midhurst. This class of furniture 
is specially designed for hospitals and sanatoria, and for hygienic reasons 
mouldings are of the simplest character, projections which would hold dust 
are avoided, and all corners and angles are rounded to facilitate cleansing. 
Washstand tops and backs are of white opaque and clear glass respectively, 
and are so arranged as to be easily detached for cleaning. These principles 
are extended also to rooms and wards, the angles between floor, walls, and 
ceiling being rounded. 

296 



SPECIAL FURNITURE FOR SHOPS, OFFICES, AND MUSEUMS 297 




298 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



An Office Cabinet (see opposite). 

These drawings are introduced to illustrate mechanical locking actions, a 
special feature in office filing cabinets, which is also applied to writing tables, 
print cabinets, &c. The simplest method of locking drawers in dwarf cabinets 
is by means of a hinged pilaster, locked into the carcase top, or, as it is done in 
many cases, at both ends. A sectional view of the pilaster and position of hinge 
are shown below. When the pilaster is opened, a free passage is allowed for 
all drawers. An enlarged detail of the locking appa- 
ratus is shown on this page, the sectional view opposite 
showing its application to an office cabinet, and it acts 
simultaneously on thirty drawers, each side of the centre 
part. One side of the cabinet is fitted with files with 
a patent attachment, manufactured by the " Shannon " 
Company, of Ropemaker Street, E.C., see diagrams, and 
drawers are used in the other part. This, however, does 
not affect the locking action, all plates being fixed to fit 
the clips. Reference to the detail below shows the wooden 
bar A fixed to the carcase top and bottom division and 
grooved to receive an iron bar. This iron bar is slotted 
at intervals, and screwed to the wooden part so that it 
can rise or fall freely to the full extent of the slots. To 





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open the three tiers of drawers, the long drawer at bottom is drawn forward 
about ] inch, and the A bar then falls and causes the clips to bear upon the 
pins shown, thus raising the front part. The drawers contained in the cabinet 
are locked by pushing home the bottom drawer, and locking the same, thus 
forcing the bar up and allowing the clips to drop. If some drawers have been 
inadvertently left open, it is not necessary to re-open the bottom drawers, but 
they should be pushed in, the plate coming into contact with the rounded front 
of clip effecting a raising action, and the clip falls down into the hole provided 
on the plates. A plate need not be made the whole length of the bottom 
drawer back, three short pieces of iron about 2\ in. long, screwed under each 
falling bar, being sufficient. 



SPECIAL FURNITURE FOR SHOPS, OFFICES, AND MUSEUMS 299 



Half- ELEVATION OF 
FILE CABINET • • - 




Sectional viev/ SHEW- 
ING- IPCKING BAR.5 • 




Scale of 

INCHES 



£)ETfllL- OF 

FLAPS 



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5 FEET 



An Office Cabinet. 



3 oo MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



A Library Table (see opposite). 

A reading table suitable for a public museum or library is shown in the 
drawing. It is arranged to seat four, but this capacity could be increased by 
extending the length, introducing the pedestals at intervals. It is built up in 
three distinct sections, explained in the order they take in building up the 
work — viz., (i) Supporting pedestals with cross bars; (2) Framed 
up and lined table part ; (3) Cupboard with falling flaps carrying 
horsed reading stands. The sectional view shows the construction 
of framed-up pedestals, and also indicates the framed-up table 
part. Owing to its width and the necessity for a perfectly rigid 
top, an under-framing is constructed with moulded lining-up 
pieces mitred round the edges, and both frames are screwed 
together. The cross-bearers are cut into the pedestals and bolted 
down, and the table part can then be fixed, and bolted as shown 
in section. The construction of cupboard part is also indicated 
in the sectional view with a centre division between the flaps. 
Fronts are panelled and a bottom frame is fixed with a set screw 
to the flap, allowing it to rotate if required, and also to move 
backwards and forwards in a slot (see sectional plan). The 
enlarged detail shows the book support frame hinged up, with 
the shape shown in sectional plan view. A brass fitting is shown, forming a 
rest for the book, which is folded up when not required for use. . The support 
is made with the stiles continuing below the bottom rail with brass shoes as 
shown above, fitting into a brass rack (see also enlarged detail). 




Detail- op 
the • brass 

SHOE • 



A Museum Case (see p. 303). 

The drawings illustrate a glass case upon a stand for the display of 
jewellery and objects of art. The table part is of simple construction, with 
rails as shown in plan, the legs being of an octagonal shape. The sloping top 
part is made with a removable frame for access to the case, and the construction 
employed is shown in the enlarged details. This frame is secured at both 
sides with special locks (see section), the dust bead at bottom acting as 
an air-proof joint, and also keying the frame to the case at the bottom. 
The top framing is tenoned into the surface moulding, and the rebate formed 
by mitreing a rebated piece between the uprights. A loose bottom is 
shown lined with suitable material, and an inner stand is made by glueing 
the columns into the shelf, fitting into the bottom with f in. turned pins 
underneath a square base (see enlarged detail of columns). This type of 
showcase is not so fragile as the circular bar kind, and the plate glass can 
be beaded in as shown in the section. 



SPECIAL FURNITURE FOR SHOPS, OFFICES, AND MUSEUMS 




ioz MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



A Museum Floor Case (Plate xlviil). 

This double-fronted case is intended for the display of specimens in the 
upper cases, the bottom part being utilised for storage purposes. Hinged covers 
are fixed upon the sloping top, and are raised when viewing the specimens ; these 
are necessary with certain natural history specimens, as a protection from a 
strong light. This case is made in three distinct parts: (i) The narrow top 
case ; (2) The sloping part above drawers ; (3) The main part or bottom case 
with drawers. The sectional plan through bottom case shows the method of 
framing up inside and outside ends. Their attachment to the main carcase is 
effected by screwing under the pilasters, the drawer rails are slip dovetailed into 
the ends, and runners grooved and fixed previously, thus making inner carcases 
fixed between the outside framing. A view under the top case A in plan shows 
the end frames connected to wide stiles ; centre stiles are also introduced, and 
top and bottom rails are tenoned between. The skirting is mitred round, and 
projects sufficiently to receive the pilaster bases. After fixing the inside carcases, 
a wide top and bottom rail is dovetailed and screwed down (see plan), thus serving 
as an additional brace, and strengthening the whole carcase. 
The construction of the sloping case is shown in enlarged 
details, the end frames being rebated to receive glass. The 
bottom rail is tenoned between the short stiles, the upright 
! ^^*- > — is tenoned down to bottom rail, and the sloping rails 

Pl<IS(WM -SHEWING. • ' r O 

o^^n^Jf^n'ons' tenoned between short stiles and centre upright. Solid 

stuff must be used for the front rails, and their connection 
with end frames is illustrated in enlarged detail, a sectional plan, from which it 
will be seen that a short stub tenon is used, and the front part mitred. Centre 
division rails divide the sloping case into four parts which are dovetailed between 
the rails. A framed-up bottom is used, and this should be rebated into the 
framing as shown in the enlarged detail. Part sectional plan of case A shows a 
rail dovetailed down to receive the hingeing piece for the glazed top. The 
frames are made in four parts meeting upon the division rail, which has the 
tongued piece glued on in order to render the joints air-proof; the connection 
above the front rail is also shown with dust bead attached. The thumb mould- 
ing is mitred round two sides of each frame only, and upon the ends of hingeing 
piece fixed at the centre. The lower doors are hinged with a dust-proof shutting 
joint, and it is advisable, though not indispensable in this case, to use a " hook " 
or S joint for meeting stiles of doors (see above). These are worked with special 
planes, and necessitate the use of double tenons in making the doors ; they are 
indicated by dotted lines in diagram. 



A Cash Desk (Plate xlix.). 

This cash desk is designed to meet general requirements in a business 
house, with pedestals, sloping desk, and cash drawer. Similar desks and 



ENC 

CEr 



Plate XLVI1I. 




A Centre Floor Case ior Museums. 



[To face f age 302 



SPECIAL FURNITURE FOR SHOPS, OFFICES, AND MUSEUMS 303 




3o 4 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

counters are suitable for banks and offices, differences occurring only in the 
arrangement and accommodation. The main idea is to have pedestals containing 
a requisite storage capacity for books, &c, with sloping desk and counter top 
supports upon the centre cupboard ; the general and subsidiary counters butting 
against the desk. The sectional view shows construction of panelled framing, and 
the stiles should be allowed to run right through to the floor ; it is unnecessary to 
carry the bottom rail full width, as, for example, when the fixing for skirting is 
obtained on the stiles. The pedestals should be made quite separately, as shown 
in plans, and screwed to the panelling ; the centre cupboard is constructed by 
making a frame with centre munting (see back elevation), doors are fitted to the 
openings, and when the pedestals are in position, the framing is screwed and 
blocked to the main pedestals. The sloping desk and cash drawer are also put 
together in one carcase, and fitted and fixed above the cupboard. The whole job, 
when fitted and set true, is completed by the addition of a counter top, framed as 
shown below. The inside edge is left square to receive the lift-up desk lid, and 
side rails are necessary with this to allow the lid to clear mouldings. A view of 




the cash drawer is shown, with a brass friction roller fixed towards the back. 
This runs upon brass plates let flush into the drawer runners, and a plate is also 
let into the drawer with a corresponding roller fixed on the runner at the front. 
This prevents the wearing away of the drawer fittings, which, otherwise, in a 
short time would be quite an appreciable amount, and prevent smooth running. 
The grill is fixed to the top of the cash desk by bolts through the pillars screwed 
into the surface plates, which are let into the top. Brass terminals are screwed 
in the top rail to hide the fixing, and the wooden collar at bottom also prevents 
the surface plate from showing. S brackets are necessary to ensure rigidity in 
any length of grill above 4 ft. An alternate method of fixing the grill is to bolt 
from underneath the top into holes previously drilled and tapped in the stan- 
dards, or with a screw brazed into the standard and bolted from underneath. 
The overhang of the cash desk top is about 5 in., and prevents the framing 
being bruised and kicked. The general counter front is framed together with 
posts and cross bearers supporting the top, but arrangements at the back are, of 
course, decided by the nature of the business, whether by racks, shelves, drawers, 
or cupboards. Where drawers are introduced, the sides should not be less than 



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SPECIAL FURNITURE FOR SHOPS, OFFICES, AND MUSEUMS 305 



f in. thick 



Bottoms are grooved into the ends as with cash drawers, and are 
strengthened by glueing blocks to the sides only ; this will allow freedom for 
the bottoms when shrinking'. 



An Office Cabinet (see next page). 

This type of office fitment has for its main feature a series of rising flaps 
sliding into grooves, which has the advantage of presenting a level front when any 
of the compartments are opened. The bottom part is encased by sliding doors, 
and the interior is divided up for ledgers as required (see plan next page and f. 4 
on this page). Sliding tops are introduced under the main top, a useful provision 




Brass- stops 
for. flaps 



FIG. 5. 

ARRANGEMENT- OF 
SLIDING -OO-ORlS 



for papers and books when referring to the contents of the cabinet. The actual 
carcase work does not depart from usual procedure ; and the method of con- 
nection between the two top carcases is shown in f. 4. The working detail in f. 2 
shows the division edges grooved to receive a moulding, which, when glued in 
position, makes a rebate to receive the flaps when down. The horizontal divisions 
must be set back as shown in f. 1, and the moulded and rebated fronts are tongued 
as shown before slip dovetailing between the vertical divisions. This necessi- 
tates a butt joint in front elevation shown in f. 2. All vertical divisions are also 
grooved to receive the flap, the detail of which is shown in f. 1. The method of 



3 o6 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




flRQNT VlELW 

INCHEJ. 

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Plan -THRO- BOTTOM 
C(qR.CA5E- • • 



S Feet 




An Office Cabinet. 



SPECIAL FURNITURE FOR SHOPS, OFFICES, AND MUSEUMS 307 

stopping them against the moulded facings is also illustrated. Fig. 1 on page 
opposite shows the grooved pilaster and end, the dotted line indicating groove 
and the rebate provided for the flap. As previously mentioned, the horizontal 
divisions are fixed between the vertical divisions first with short moulded lengths 
grooved into the carcase fitted between them — mitre joints could be used — but 
a more economical way is to scribe the pieces between. The flaps are flush at 
the back, and are mortised and tenoned together with the panel inserted previous 
to glueing up. Ordinary butt-joint hinges are used for the flap joints, and small 
catches are sunk into the bottom edge. 



Enclosed Washstands (see p. 308). 

These enclosed washstands are used in private offices, &c, where washing 
accommodation is required in a limited space. The first type illustrated 




Elevations and Sectional View of an Office Chair. 



has the washstand top dovetail housed between the ends, with the bottom 
lap dovetailed to the carcase ends. A wide front rail is grooved between 
the ends to enclose the cistern, and a hingeing strip and top are fixed 
above for access to it. The sloping top is also attached to a hingeing strip 
slip dovetailed between the ends. A lead cistern fits into the space provided, 
and the cubical contents of this should equal the contents of water-waste 
pan placed in the cupboard. A sectional view shows a method of fixing 



3 o8 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




Types ok Enclosed Washstands. 



SPECIAL FURNITURE FOR SHOPS, OFFICES, AND MUSEUMS 309 

the tap and also the bowl cut into the top. Fillets are screwed to the shelf 
to ensure the water-waste pan fitting directly under the plug. Space is pro- 
vided in the cupboard at bottom for towels and other accessories. 

The second type illustrated is for uses similar to the above but the supply 
of water must be provided for by a separate receptacle in the cupboard. A 
basin, soap and brush dishes are sunk flush into the top with the plug and 
water-waste pan as in previous example. A light-moulded frame containing a 
looking glass is screwed to the underneath of the lift-up top. This can be hinged, 




Details of Museum Print Stand (see next page). 

if desired, with a small brass rack for tilting it, with a cabin hook or button 
to secure it when top is closed. Brass knuckle joint stays are used for sup- 
porting the top, the fixing of which is described in chapter on " Brasswork." 



An Office Chair (see p. 307). 

The drawings represent in elevations and section an office chair with 
upholstered seat and back rail. Its use demands strength rather than good 
appearance, and no decoration is introduced. American leather is used for 
the seat and back with an edging of nails. Angle blocks are keyed and screwed 
to the rails in the corners to strengthen the frame. Contrary to the general 
rule in chair work, the seat does not diminish towards the back. Office stools 
are similar to the chair, but are without the back. 



3io MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




A Revolving Print Stand for Museums. 



SPECIAL FURNITURE FOR SHOPS, OFFICES, AND MUSEUMS 311 



O 



A Museum Print Stand (see opposite). 

This is a pedestal stand designed to exhibit collections of drawings, 
embroideries, or prints, and is fitted with twenty-four pairs of double frames 
showing forty-eight faces. These frames are hinged and fold somewhat in 
the form of a book. With slight alteration this stand can be made shaped to 
half the plan and fixed to a wall. The bottom pedestal, octagonal in shape, is 
made as illustrated in detail (see sketch, p. 309), 
tongued together at the angles with skirting 
mitred round ; strong bearers are dovetailed 
across the pedestal to support the upper part 
and top. The detail on opposite page shows the 
moulded base ; a softwood groundwork is made 
to octagonal shape, and the moulding stuff is 
jointed round the splayed faces, the grain run- 
ning from top to bottom, and then turned to 
the section. The upper part is jointed as a 
cylinder or drum glued into the bottom board, 

and the top is rebated and screwed. A carved crested locking piece projects 
beyond the cylinder, and the frames are thereby secured and cannot be taken 
off. The frames are connected in pairs back to back with pianoforte hinges 
on the outside edges. One method of securing the frames is to fix the plates 
shown above on each frame, and the pin passing through both centres forms an 
effective lock. Rounded dowels are inserted between the closing stiles of the 
frames, and ensure them closing into the correct position. The frame fittings 
are of gun-metal with steel pins ; the centre and bottom set being made to fix 
with surface plates let into the edge. The top plates, as in the pin plates above, 
are sunk flush and screwed into the cylinder as illustrated. 



si 


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METHOD- OF- FIXING- 
Top- PIN- PLATES • 
EXACT size: • • 



CHAPTER XVI. 

CHAIRMAKING. 

Classification — Introduction of Chairs and Stools — Primitive Examples — Identification of 
Chairs — Necessity of Studying Historic Examples — Diagrams showing Characteristics 
of Period Chairs — Chronological Chart giving Names, Periods, Dates, Characteristics, 
and General Proportions of Chairs and Seats in Various Styles, including " Cavalier," 
"Charles II. High Back," "Spoon Backs," "Grandfather," "Riband," "Wheat- 
sheaf," "Lattice," "Heart," "Shield," "Oval," "Ladder Back," "Stuff-over 
Chairs," "Adjustable Settees," "Bed," "Drawing," and "Dining" Room 
Chairs, &c. Workshop Practice — Subdivision of Industry — Special Tools 
used in Chair Work, Frame Saws, Leg Vice, Routers, Scraper Spokeshaves, 
Special Cramps, Iron Band Cramps — Use of same — Templates, Material for — 
Shaping and Moulding Legs and Arms Connecting Segments — Bevelled Mortising 
— Use of Saddle — Drawing and Dining Room Chairs, Designs for^Methods of 
Construction — Pierced Splads — Cabriole Leg Detail, Construction of — Bracing Chair 
Frames, Alternate Types — Loose Seats in Dining Chairs, Construction of — Loose 
Seat for Settle — Stuff-over Arm-Chair — Arrangement of Rails for Upholstery — General 
Rules for same — Measured Drawing and Detail of Child's Chair— Chesterfield 
Settee — Elevations and Sectional Views — Enlarged Detail of Wood and Iron Ratchet 
Movements — Construction of Framing — Knole Settees — William and Mary Arm 
Chair — Development from Earlier Styles — Methods and Process Involved in 
Inclined Legs — Arrangement for Upholstery — Curved Arms, Method of Working, 
Moulding same — Finishing a Scroll Terminal — Measured Drawings and Details 
of a Hall Seat. 

Introduction. 

The craft of chairmaking, embracing, as it now does, settees, couches, divans, 
and numerous small and arm chairs, is most comprehensive, and is usually 
practised as a distinct craft. It is divided into sections, such as stuff-over 
frame work, arm and small chairs. Many cabinet shops, however, still require 
the cabinetmaker to be skilled also in chair work, which is then practically 
confined to the reproduction of old examples, seats, and framing, occurring 
in domestic and ship fitments. 

The history of chairs dates back to the earliest times, but it was not until 
the fifteenth century that they became an accepted type of furniture. To enu- 
merate all the kinds of chairs and seats, ranging from the rude forms of primitive 



CHAIRMAKING 



3i3 



Queen Anne 



James H 

"HIGH SftCK' 



JflC°e>E/Vi 




Hepplewhite 



Shield"' 



Hepplewhite 



LATTICE 



'OVAL" 



Types of Chair Backs. 



3« 4 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



stools to the elaborate settees, divans, and chairs of the present date, and even 
including thrones and chairs of state, would be a long task, but the chronological 
list given in this chapter (Plate L.) may be consulted for general reference. 
Identification of Chairs. — To recognise the development of form and 
detail in chairs, a study of historic examples is, of course, necessary, and 
it should prove a rich source of information as to their respective styles. 
Certain typical shapes, generally the outcome of changing conditions in social 
life, custom, or dress, are always characteristic of the period. The diagrams 

given on p. 313 will 
be found of some 
assistance in deter- 
mining dates and 
styles of chairs pro- 
duced under the best 
masters. 

The Jacobean 
chair back with 
lunette -shaped top 
rail and acorn pen- 
dant is typical of 
that period. Fre- 
quently ' the backs 
were of solid stuff 
carved with semicir- 
cular headed panels, 
and also with spindles 
or pillars as illus- 
trated. James II. 
high back chairs with 
cane seats and backs 
are a further develop- 
ment of Charles II. 
chairs, a period which 
marks the introduc- 
tion of scroll form 
carvings and twisted 
turnings. Queen 
Anne chairs and 
settees have "centre splads " in the back. This is the most prolific 
period for chairs of singular beauty and proportion, and is essentially 
an English style. Queen Anne or Georgian types have also been aptly 
described as "of great purity." Chippendale brought about the next im- 
portant development in chairs, and the evolution of the Queen Anne splad 
is clearly shown in his examples. The introduction of mahogany proved 
superior to those woods previously used, and elaborate carved "open work 
splads " (see riband back) were possible. Chippendale chairs always have 
the splad or centre part connected to the seat rail, part of which is visible 




Cutting Sweep on Bench, 



Plate L. 



A Chronological Chart giving Names, Periods, Dates, General Characteristics, and Proportions of Chairs and Seats in Various Styles. 



Class. 


Style. 


Period. 


Name. 


Back. 


Wood. 


Finish. 


Legs. 


Width 
at Front. 


Width 
iu Back. 


Total 
Height. 


Seat 

Height. 


Front 
to Back. 


















Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Stool 


Tudor 


1500-1603 


Joint 




Oak 


Waxed 


Square - 


1 


9 


1 9 


18 18 


1 2 


Settle 


Jacobean - 


1603-1649 


High back 


Panelled 


jj 


„ 


Turned - 


4 


6 


4 6 


4 O 


' 4 


1 10 


Child's Chair 


n 


n 


Child's arm - 


Carved 


jj 


„ 


)> 


1 


•i 


1 ol 


3 3 


2 2 


1 


Dining ,, 


Cromwellian 


1649-1660 


High back 


)> 


) [ 




1 " S " scroll and | 
twisted | 


1 


7 


1 4^ 


4 4 


1 3 


1 5 


i) " 


Charles II. 


1660-1685 


Cane ,, 


Cane 


(Oak or beech I 
(with rush seat \ 


11 


1 


7 


■ 4i 


3 9 


1 4i 


1 3l 


Arm ,, 


William and Mary 


1689-1702 


High „ 


Carved 


) \ 


)? 


Turned 


2 


l h 


1 1 ol. 


4 


1 7 


1 9 


Dining „ 


Queen Anne 


1702-1714 


Spoon ,, 


Splad 


Walnut 


Polished 




1 


9 


1 5 


3 4 


1 7 


1 Si 


Settee 


j? >> 


11 


Splad ,, 


Double splad 


, 




| 
Cabriole with 


3 


5 


2 1 1 


3 6 


1 6 


1 9i 


Arm Chair 


») )> 


n 


Grandfather - 


Stuff-over 


» 


» 


"claw and ball "< 
or " hoof" feet 1 


2 


1 


1 1 1 


3 6J 


1 4i 


2 1* 


j) >» 


Early Georgian - 


1714-1727 


Spoon back - 


Splad 


„ 


>i 


1 


1 


9 


1 5 


3 4 


1 7 


1 5i 


Dining ,, 


Chippendale 


I74O-I764 


Riband ,, 


Carved 


Mahogany 


)> 


■ 


1 


9 


1 a\ 


3 2 


1 7 


1 6 


i) ?) 


.. 


)) 


Ladder ,, 


.1 


>> 


>, 


"Claw and ball" 
"club" foot, 


1 


8 


' 3* 


3 1 


1 6 i 


1 5* 


Arm „ 


J1 


„ 


Riband ,, 


>> 


,, 


>i 


pierced and 


2 





' 7 


3 3 


1 7 


1 6h 


>' n 


„ 


)) 


Wheatsheaf - 


1) 


>) 


»> 


tapered legs 


2 


2 


1 1 \ 


3 3 


1 5 


1 11A 


Drawing „ 


Adam 


I75S-1785 


Oval back 


„ 


>i 


Gilt 


Turned 


1 


6 


I *£ 


3 2 h 


1 6 


1 3] 


II )J 


Hepplewhite 


I780-180O 


Heart shape - 


)> 


?) 


Polished 


"Turned and 
reeded," also! 


1 


9 


1 2 


3 2 


1 7 


1 6 


'» JJ 


,, - - 


)) 


Shield ,, 


>> 


>> 


)> 






















Dining ,, 






Oval 








with decorated 1 
























>> 


?» 


" ,ai >) 


)> 


" 


>> 


fluting 






















II !) 


)j 


;> 


Wheatsheaf - 


>> 


jj 


»• 


1 


1 


6 J 


1 3 


3 1 


1 6 1 


1 4* 


Drawing ,, 
Arm „ 
Lady's Arm-chair 


Sheraton 


1780-1810 


Lyre shape 


>> 


Satinwood 


JJ 


| Turned and 1 


1 


8 


1 3 


3 ° 


1 6 


1 42- 


Modern 


)> 


Lattice - 
Stuff-over 


Moulded 


)> 


" 


J tapered [ 


1 


6 


1 3 


2 1 1 


1 6 


1 4 


Gent's „ 








\ 






2 


1 


1 10 


3 2 


1 4 


1 ioi 




M 




!> 










2 


>i 


1 1 1 


3 9 


1 4} 


2 1 


» )> 


)) 




Wing stuff-over 










2 





2 


3 8 


1 4 


2 ij 


Chesterfield 
Box, Chesterfield 






1 Stuff-over with 
!■ adjustable 
) ends 


Beech or birch frames, with! 
legs, &c, of various hard- - 

1 woods 


Polished 


/Various, including 
) turned, thurmed, 1 
j cabriole, and! 


5 
6 


6 




5 6 

6 


3 3 
3 


1 c 1 
1 6 


2 
2 


Grecian Settee 


>» 




Stuff-over 








' tapered 


6 





6 


2 5 


1 5 


2 


Canterbury Settee 


» 




)> 










6 





6 


2 3 


1 7 


2 ^ ^ 


bedroom - 


,| " - - 




Rush-seat 










1 


4 


r 2 


3 ° 


1 6 


1 5 


Music Stool 


" 




Box 


1 






2 





2 


' H 


1 7i 


1 4*| 


)> 


)> 




Revolving 




- 


- 


- 


- 




Minimum 


height = 




6 


... 





[To face page 314. 



CHAIRMAKING 



3'5 



above the seat (see also vvheatsheaf pattern). Hepplewhite introduced curved 
backs of heart, shield, and oval forms, with tapering and spade toe legs. 
Sheraton reverted to a style of design more chaste and refined than the 
ornate types of Chippendale, and, incidentally, more suitable for the satin- 




1. Shaping Chair Leg in Chair Vice. 

wood he chiefly worked upon. Many of his chairs are rectangular in 
outline, and there is nearly always a distinguishing feature in the bottom 
rail of the back, placed about 2 in. above the seat (see " lyre " and " lattice "). 



Practice of Chair Work. 



Chairmaking, practised as a separate craft, requires long experience to 
become an adept, a position generally accomplished by close specialisation in 
particular branches. The best chair work was 
undoubtedly executed during the eighteenth 
century, and with but slight modification and 
additions, the examples made during that period 
decide present-day proportions, as well as being 
the basis of modern chair-work design. For 
economic reasons, chiefly speedy production, division of branches in chair- 
making has been brought about, although the principles and practice of each 




2. A Scraper Spokeshave. 



3 i6 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




WOODEht • HOR.MS. 
&OLTED -TO -IRON ■ 



branch vary but slightly. Tools, appliances, and methods are general. The 
special tools required in a chairmaker's kit are frame saws of various sizes used 
for ripping out stuff, straight or curved arms, legs, and segments. The saw is 
worked by fixing the material flat on the bench, and manipulating it as shown 
on p. 314. A leg vice is also necessary for holding curved arms and sweeps 
(see p. 315) during the processes of shaping, filing, and moulding. Loose 

wooden jaws are fitted over the vice heads to 
prevent the iron surface bruising the stuff (f. 1 
opposite). Routers of various shapes for 
scratching mouldings round framing arms, &c, 
with a variety of spokeshaves and scraper spoke- 
shaves (see f. 2, p. 315), are important items of 
equipment. With efficient mastery, this last- 
mentioned tool will act quicker and cleaner 
than the ordinary type. It consists of a piece of 
thin steel, bevelled and sharpened with a scraper 
edge, fixed between two pieces of stuff, secured 
by screwing, an escapement being cut as shown 
in diagram to dispose of the shavings. Special 
cramps are also necessary in chair work, types of 
which are illustrated in f. 1, 2, 3, with the jaws 
made longer than the cabinetmaker's patterns, 
e.g., an iron tee cramp and wooden cramps. 
The use of a chairmaker's cramp is obvious in 
cramping curved work where the additional jaw 
space allows the cramp to fit over curved rails. 
Band cramps are also illustrated. Fig. 1 along- 
side is used for cramping oval or circular seats, 
and consists of a flexible iron band fixed on two 
wooden horns, which, when cramped together as 
shown, effects an equal distribution of pressure 
round the seat. Another pattern is shown in 
f. 2, a more simple kind, used only for horseshoe- 
shaped seats. In this case cramping blocks are 
fixed to an iron board and a stout wooden bar 
is placed at the front, the extra length serving 
as a grip when cramping up. Both cramps 
are required for this, as shown in diagram, 
and the pressure is applied by screwing them 
up simultaneously. A more expensive and 
effective band cramp is shown in f. 1, the wooden 
bar of which is interchangeable and made to fit any size seat, the screws 
being bored through this piece and pressure applied by turning the handle. 
Templates.— The method of making templates, an important feature in 
chair work, is described in Chapter X. ; this procedure holds good in chair as 
in furniture making, but cardboard templates are the general rule, wooden 
templates only being used for repetition work. 




An Interchangeable 
IJand Cramp. 



CHAIRMAKING 



3 T 7 



Shaping and Moulding.— The shaping 
of frames for stuff-over work is straightfor- 
ward, but in the more complex and highly 
finished forms such as Chippendale and 
Sheraton arm - chairs in hardwood it is 
more difficult in character, and, generally 
speaking, can only be successfully accom- 
plished by experimenting with softwood 
models or when copied from a given pattern. 
The preliminary processes of marking and 
cutting out the stuff is proceeded with, the 
segments are roughly shaped, then dowelled 
or mortised together and carefully spoke- 
shaved and fixed to obtain the necessary 
" feeling." A working drawing cannot ade- 
quately show this, and the senses of sight and 
touch must be relied upon. 

Connecting Segments. — Particular 
shapes or curves of segments, with the direc- 
tion of grain, determines the best method 
of fixing together. 
Dowelling is effec- 
tivewhere the piece 
is fairly straight- 
grained. " Dowel 
screws " are also 
used in " butt 
joints." Although 
dowelling has al- 
most superseded 
the old-fashioned 
but better method 
of mortising and 
tenoning the 

frames together, 

the latter is largely used in better class work 
where great strength and trueness are required. 
Bevelled and curved work where mortised is 
supported in a saddle (see f. i above), which 
provides a firm "bed" when conducting this 
operation. 





I. Mortising Leg on Saddle. 



METHOD ■OF-TUR.NIING 
1NCLMNED-LE.G5 • 



"MAKING • UP' 
PIECE I 



MARKING -OUT 
CURVED • ARMS 





4. Showing Cutter, Workim 
Position of Arm. 




5. View showing Template. 



A William and Mary Arm-Chair. 

The construction employed in this type is straightforward, the chair parts 
being either mortised and tenoned or dowelled together. A sectional view of the 



3i8 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




CHAIR. MAKING 



3*9 



rail shows the rebate to receive the covering, finished with rail borders. Designs 
in this and the transitory periods frequently show the back legs sloping from 
the seat upwards, occasionally at a very decided angle. If this is sufficient to 
weaken the leg the top part should be made separately with a strong i-in. dowel 
into the bottom part. This type of leg occurs also in work of a later period, 
and the turning is executed by cramping a block at one end to receive the lathe 
pivot, see f. i, p. 317, reversing the process to complete the bottom portion. 
The sectional plan shows vertical rails mortised between the horizontal rails and 
rebated for upholstery. Rebates are carried right through the vertical rails, and 
the horizontals are stop-rebated to complete the rectangle. The workshop 
practice involved in executing the arms is also frequently met with in chair 
work. Two templates are required for marking out, shaped to elevation and plan 
respectively ; they are applied to material as shown in f. 3, when the outline is 
pencilled and the arm band-sawn to shape. After cutting, the arms should be 
" regulated " with files before proceeding to scratch the mouldings. Fig. 4 shows 
a section of the moulded arm, and, as indicated in plan, the section is smaller at the 
back. Scratching the moulding must therefore proceed in stages. The first step 




1. View showing Construction 2. Loose Seat for a Queen Anne Settee, 
with Dowelled Joints. 

is to prepare a piece of wood to the true side view of the arm, with the back end 
y\ in. thicker than front, this measure representing the difference in the size of 
bead at front and back ; fix this making-up piece temporarily to one side 
of the arm and work a half section as shown in f. 5, repeat with the other side of 
arm and complete the section as indicated by working V shape for bead from 
top side, finishing the section with spokeshave and scraper. The scroll part 
at the front is finished with carving gouges. 



Drawing and Dining Room Chairs. 

A reference to the chronological chart in this chapter gives details of pro- 
portions and sizes of the above-named chairs in various periods. A drawing-room 
chair is illustrated with a strapwork splad tenoned between the top and seat rails. 
The piercing should be executed after glueing up. The section is illustrated in 
enlarged detail, the straight portions being worked on the face side with a scratch 
stock, and the back is rounded with rasps and files. An interesting detail is shown 
on the plan of the seat. It will be seen from the elevation that the moulded 



3 2o MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




Section • 

OF -FRPNT 
AND SIDE 
R.AILS 



'R.ONT- VIEW 



SlDEVIEW 



is. 

t± 



n-T 



6 " 3 " o 

I I I I I I 1-1- 



INCHES- SCALE ■ 
FOR. ELEVATIONS 



CARVED 
NULLING 



3 FLET 




5IDE-VIEW 



Front View 



Drawing and Dining Room Chairs. 



CHAIRMAKING 



321 



legs project slightly above the rails, and an effective finish is obtained by making 
the beads converge to the centre of the leg in the form of a leaf carved rather 
flatter than the bead moulding. The Chippendale dining-chair also has the 
splad, " banister," or " baluster," as it is variously called, tenoned into cross- 
rails or "slats," which are fretted and carved after glueing up. The cabriole 
leg detail in this chair embodies the usual constructive features of this design, 
and is cut from 3-in. stuff, with rails tenoned between the knee parts, the scroll- 
like terminations under the knees being added in the form of a small bracket, 
tenoned into the legs, and glued to the rails after the frame is glued. These are 
then levelled down to the leg profiles and carved up. Two methods of " bracing " 
a chair frame are shown in plan, the front braces are " cogged " into the rails and 




A Queen Anne Settee. 

screwed, whereas the back types are planed to fit the angle, then glued and 
firmly screwed : these materially strengthen the frame and ensure rigidity, which 
is very necessary in frames with loose seats. The plan also shows the knee part 
of leg cut to coincide with rebated rails. Loose seats are also an especial feature 
of dining-room chairs of the Chippendale period, and are occasionally used in 
settees of the Queen Anne period (see p. 319). Fig. 1 (p. 319) represents a view of 
a loose seat for a dining-chair, made from £-in. birch dowelled together. Fig. 2, 
the plan of seat for the settee mentioned above ; webbing is fixed to the 
underside, and the stuffing of horsehair, &c, laid above it. These loose frames 
should be made smaller than the rebate to allow for the covering materials which 
are tacked to the underside ; I in. is the usual allowance. 



322 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




SCALE • F°C 
ELEVATION 



FRPNT • AND- PART 
SECTIONAL ELEV- 
ATION OF iA SMALL 
STUFF • OVEB-flCM- 
CHAIE • 




5ECTIOMAL • SIDE 
ELEVATION • * 



frT^ 



fy 



M 




ARM-OF-CHILDS- 
CHAR- DRAWN ■ 
ONE -THIED-FULL 
SIZE. ■ 




A Stuff-ovep Chair and Child's High Chair. 



CHAIRMAKING 323 



A Stuff-over Chair (see opposite). 

This class of work is so called from the upholstery almost completely 
covering the framings, another example of which is illustrated in the Chesterfield 
settee in this chapter. The lines of the frame are determined by the design, and 
in the majority of cases, closely follow it. The bottom rails of the frame are 
2 by if in., and to these are fixed the webbings and also the finished materials 
of seat (see elevations) ; the second rail serves as a fixing for the wing or arm 
coverings and also for the back covering (see dotted lines in side elevation). This 
arrangement of rails holds good in all stuff-over work. The wood used for chair 
frames is generally birch, this having superseded the use of beech, which was 
particularly susceptible to attack by worms and dry-rot. Dowelling is used in 
fitting up the frame illustrated ; and for repeat work, zinc templates for marking are 
an advantage, as described in " Dowelling " (Workshop Practice and Construction). 
When glued up, the frames are levelled by planing and spokeshaving, slightly 
rounding all edges, and end grains should be well rubbed with thin glue, which 
acts as a strengthening agent, and prevents the wood splintering when tacking 
on the covers. The sketch (p. 321) represents a Queen Anne settee with loose 
seat, the construction of which is described on p. 321. The framing is rebated 
to receive this seat, and the construction of the curved part is best effected by 
building up in segments and veneering the surface, forking the legs up into the 
frame, the moulding being glued into a rebate to receive the seat. This type 
of frame is, however, frequently made with rails cut from the solid and dowelled 
up to the legs. 

A measured drawing of a child's chair is also shown opposite, with enlarged 
detail of back, the dotted lines representing shoulder lines on the pierced splad, 
which is tenoned into the rails. This chair is made in two parts with a bead 
between the joints under the seat which is pocket screwed from underneath. 



A Chesterfield Settee (see next page). 

The drawings on p. 324 deal with mechanical features of Chesterfield and 
Knole settees, and also further illustrate the general constructive principles of 
stuff-over framework previously dealt with in a Sheraton arm-chair. The bed or 
seat frame is illustrated in plan, the inside end rails being necessary to secure 
the upholstery work, and leave a space at each end for the mechanical actions (see 
also dotted line indicating upholstery in sectional elevation). A perspective sketch 
shows the construction of each corner, the bracket F being dowelled and screwed 
to the framing at each end with the rail G butted in between. Reference to the 
enlarged detail of the mechanical action on the next page will more clearly show 
the necessity for this bracket, which, it will be observed, provides a firm seating 
for the drop end when lowered to its full extent, and when used in this position 
it has the greatest strain exerted upon it. The wooden action is illustrated 



324 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 




A Chesterfield Settee. 



CHAIRMAKING 



325 



opposite, and is operated by pulling the cord, thus releasing the ratchet and 

allowing the end to drop. The rail J is mortised between the ratchets, and 

when the cord is arranged, as shown, round the rails and drawn upwards, it 

draws the ratchet from its position on the rail. The spring is attached to two 

rails pressing against the circular rod, as shown, and pulls the ratchet close to 

the rail again when the cord is released. Rail K rests upon the ratchet ends, 

and acts as a strengthening agent when the end is 

lowered, in addition to providing the requisite fixing 

for the spring. A part elevation is shown of the back 

frame, which is dowelled together with a centre rail 

not shown in the drawing, the outline in this case 

closely following the finished line of upholstery. 

The distance between the ends can be extended 

according to requirements ; the usual practice when 

dispensing with the centre leg is to use the iron 

stretcher illustrated, fixed across the rails, and this 

has the added advantage in its use of following 

the under line of the stuffing. 

" Knole " settees closely follow the above type in 
shape and construction, an especial feature being the 
wide top rail on the frame, which acts as a seating 
for the springs ; the back also has this wide rail and 
does not curve. The detail on this page illustrates 
" Ayer's " patent fitting for these settees, operated 
by pressing the thumb piece, and raising or lowering 
when the pressure on it is removed ; the spring acting 

upon a clip effects a stop on the ratchet. This mechanical action is suitable 
for both types of settee, as is also the wooden action described above, but the 
iron attachment has obvious advantages, involving, as it does, a simplification of 
construction, and also the omission of a perishable cord. 




The chart on Plate L. has been drawn up as a reference to the general 
shapes and dimensions of the various types of chairs. The sizes have been 
measured from actual examples, but they may vary in different designs and 
according to the special use for which a chair has been made. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

ENGLISH, FOREIGN, AND COLONIAL WOODS. 

Trees — Botanical Divisions — Growth and Structure — Hard and Soft Woods — Section of 
Tree and Names of Parts — Defects and Diseases — Conversion, Seasoning, Shrinkage 
and Warpage — Commercial Sizes and Terms — Detailed Description of Woods — 
Geographical Distribution — Ports of Shipment — Sizes of Logs — Market Prices and 
Uses — Special Section on Colonial Timbers. 

A CLOSE knowledge of timber is important to the cabinetmaker from two 
points of view. He should know how and where to use it for the best results 
in construction, and be able to appreciate its beauties in colour and figure for 
decorative purposes. Added to this he should know how to buy and convert 
to the best advantage, and select his wood for its special purpose with care 
and forethought. All this can only come with experience in handling the wood 
itself, but the value of such practical knowledge is increased if backed up by a 
close study of the growth and structure of timber in the living tree. It would 
not be possible here to refer at any great length to this important side of the 
question, but to note only the essentials as they apply in a general or particular 
way. 

Trees which produce timber are classed by the botanist as "Exogenous," 
or, as the word implies, of outside growth. The class opposite to this is " En- 
dogenous," signifying an inside growth, such as the palm tree, known to us 
as " partridge " and " porcupine " wood, and used only for inlaying. Bamboos 
also belong to this class, but are scarcely important enough for notice in spite 
of their unfortunate introduction into the furniture trade. 

The exogenous trees are again divided into two distinct classes, viz., 
" broad leaf" and " needle leaf." The oak, walnut, mahogany, &c, are broad 
leaf trees, and produce timber which is largely made up of real vessels or pores, 
and in a general way they are termed " hardwoods," although some of them, such 
as whitewood, willow, and poplar, are comparatively soft. They are also decidu- 
ous with exceptions in the holm oak, holly, &c. On the other hand needle 
leaf trees produce timber without such pores, except in small quantities near 
the heart, the woody substance being chiefly composed of what are known as 
" tracheites," and " parenchyma," or tissue. The difference in the two structures 
is easily recognised by examining the end grains of a piece of oak and yellow 
deal. The pores are plainly visible in the oak, whilst the deal appears to be 
made up of spongy fibres. These needle leaf trees are the conifers, such as 
the pines, firs, yews, cedars, and larch, and with some exceptions (the larch is 
one) are evergreen. They are called the " soft " and " resinous " woods. Other 

326 



ENGLISH, FOREIGN, AND COLONIAL WOODS 



327 




1. Section of Half a Tree, showing 
Heart, Sap, Rays, and Rings. 



points of difference may be noted by reference to the diagram, f. 1, which 
shows the section of a hardwood tree slightly exaggerated for purposes 
of illustration. The centre spot represents the 
pith, heart, or medulla ; the rings shown light 
and dark are the " annual rings," the light one 
known as the " spring," and the dark the 
" autumn " ring. As a rule they are the result 
of one year's growth, formed by the upward or 
downward movement of the sap and wood- 
forming substances. They vary in width in 
different trees. In the conifers they are, as a 
rule, strongly marked, and also in the oak (see 
f. 2, a section of English oak full size) ; in 
mahogany and walnut a little less, and in 
ebony they are hardly visible. The outside 
thick dark ring is the bark, rind, or cortex, 
in some trees thick and furrowed, as the oak, 
ash, and chestnut ; in others thin and scaly, 
as in the beech, birch, and plane. Between 
the bark and the last ring is a thin layer known 
as the "cambium," which contains the active wood-forming substances and 
generative tissue. The shaded portion is the real or heartwood known as 

the "duramen," whilst the 



lighter outside rings are 
known as the " alburnum " 
or sapwood. This sap- 
wood varies in width, and 
is usually lighter in colour 
than the heart, although 
in some trees, the ash for 
one, the difference is hardly 
recognisable. In nearly all 
woods the sap should not 
be used as it rots quickly, 
but the ash is looked upon 
as an exception to the rule- 
The lines which radiate 
from the centre are the 
" medullary " or " pith " 

in 




2. Section of English Oak, full size. 



nearly 

all the " soft " woods, and 

many of the hard, such as 

teak, walnut, ash, and 

mahogany, but are very plain in oak, plane, and beech. In oak they 

make the " figure " or " silver grain," also known as " clash " and " felt," 



328 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

and give the name to " lacewood," which is figured plane. These rays are thin 
plates of cellular tissue running right through the tree, and act as ducts to carry- 
moisture from the sap to the heart. There are long and short rays, generally 
known as " primary " and " secondary." 



Defects and Diseases in Timber. 

Defects. — Most woods are liable, more or less, to some defect or disease, 
either in the standing tree or converted logs. The most common to the tree 
are the " Heart," " Star," and " Cup " or " Ring " shakes. The " Heart Shake," 
f. i, affects nearly all timber trees, but amongst the least affected are Sabicu, 
Cuba mahogany, and English elm. The diagram shows the shake in a log 
of oak. It is said to be due to incipient decay when the heartwood begins to 
shrink up. 

" Star Shake," f. 2, is a decided cleavage along the line of the rays, and 
widening towards the outer rings as the log dries. This shake may also be 





1. Heart Shake. 



2. Star Shake. 



due to some decay, sudden heat or frost. The "Cup" or "Ring" Shake, 
f. 1, next page, clearly shows a separation of the rings due to an absence of 
cohesive qualities between the layers, caused either by high winds, frost, or 
insect ravages, and in some cases by all three. These diagrams have been 
drawn from actual logs. "Rifty" and "Shelly" are terms applied to similar 
shakes on the surface, whilst " Thunder Shake " or " Upsett," is caused by 
sudden fall or violent concussion which crushes the fibres into each other. 
This shake is usually recognised by a dark broken line across the board 
shown in the diagram, f. 2, next page. " Sun Shakes " are due to sudden 
drying when timber is exposed to the sun. They will be few or numerous 
according to the time of exposure, and they run in lines parallel to the rays 
and sometimes along the rings. The heart of a tree sometimes " wanders " 
through irregular growth, and the " fibre " or grain is " twisty " through strain 
when exposed to high winds. 



ENGLISH, FOREIGN, AND COLONIAL WOODS 



3 2 9 




I. Cup Shake. 



In addition to the above named there must always be numerous shakes 
and defects in timber which cannot be explained or classified, and it must be 
noted that the names change in different localities. 

Diseases. — " Wet Rot " attacks a standing or newly felled tree, and is 
caused by excess of moisture, which, having no vent, brings on decomposition, 
and discolours and rots the wood. It is discovered in boards by the brownish 
colour and powder similar to touchwood. " Dry Rot " 
is set up in unseasoned timber or in situations where 
the ventilation is defective, as in the floor of a house. 
The first indications of the rot are a fusty smell and 
a covering of white mildew, together with discoloration 
of the wood, which powders and crumbles away. 
" Doatiness " is a term given to a form of decay 
which produces a stain of a whitish grey colour 
with dark specks, and reduces the wood to powder. 

" Foxiness " is also a form of decay which discolours the wood as in " Brown " 
and " Pollard oak." " Druxiness " is an early state of decomposition 
recognised by white or yellowish streaks running with the grain. A 
" Druxy " knot is soft and rotten, as against the " Live " knot which is hard and 
well set. " Rind Gall " is caused by a bruise in the bark, or by the breaking 
of a branch leaving a wound which does not heal properly. Trees in full leaf 

are attacked by insects which produce 
growths known as " galls," of which the 
"apple" and "artichoke" on the oak are 
common examples, whilst other trees 
are ravaged by their own particular pest 
of fungus. " Burrs " are the result of 
a defect or malformed growth, and ap- 
pear as great swellings on the side of the 
tree. Wood-boring beetles and worms 
destroy converted and made-up timber, 
both indoors and out, as well as living trees. The Goat Moth, Wood Wasp, 
and Pine Beetle are among the largest, whilst the smaller worms are well 
known as the furniture pests. An attack may be arrested by soaking the part 
in strong chemical solutions, such as bichloride of mercury, or copper sulphate, 
but the safest way is to cut out all affected parts, as some of these creatures 
will migrate to other articles in the same room. 




2. Thunder Shake. 



n. 



Shrinkage and Warpage. 



Newly felled timber contains about 40 per cent, of water, which, in drying, 
is reduced to about 12 per cent., so that a considerable contraction in bulk and 
weight takes place during the drying or seasoning process. The direction of 



33° 



MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



shrinkage is nearly always circumferential, and f. i shows it in half a round, and 
f. 2 in quartered logs. As there is most moisture in the sap, the greatest 
contraction takes place in the outside rings, which accounts for the distorted 





I. Shrinkage in Half-round Log. 



2. Shrinkage in Quartered Losrs. 



square when the opposite corners seem to draw nearer each other. In like 
manner boards or planks will shrink, and consequently warp, as shown in f. 3, 

the part of the board near the heart, or 
driest wood, remaining practically fixed, 
whilst each end of the board curls away 
from the heart, only the centre or heart 
board contracting equally on both sides. 
This is an important point to note in using 
wide stuff for ends or tops, so that the least 
amount of warpage or " pull " takes place 
when the stuff is fixed, or allowance is 
made for it in fixing. Even a well-dried 
board may warp when planed up and the 
pores are opened to the air, and boards 
which are badly warped will return to their 
right flatness if laid on the damped floor, 
hollow side down. The degree of warpage 
depends on the way the board has been cut, the maximum when sawn as in the 
last diagram, and the minimum when cut on the quarter or parallel to the rays. 




3. Shrinkage or Warpage in Planks 
or Board. 



Seasoning. 

Seasoning is a process whereby the moisture in the wood evaporates or 
dries up, whilst the wood itself and all it contains gets set or seasoned. The 
best and surest method, though not the quickest, is known as "natural" 
seasoning. Logs and planks are stacked in covered sheds with open sides, 
where they are kept dry but get plenty of air. In the stacking a space is left 
between each plank to form an air passage, and the layers are put at right angles 
to each other to allow for this, and to tie the stack together. Planks of hard- 
wood are sometimes stacked on edge in racks, but deals are piled in parallel 
rows with an air passage between each one. Boards are piled in stacks as they 
are cut from the log, but with slips of similar wood, all of the same thickness, 



ENGLISH, FOREIGN, AND COLONIAL WOODS 



33* 



between each one, for the air passage as in sketch below. These slips are put 
at intervals of 1 to 4 ft. apart, according to the thickness of the stuff, and strips 
of wood, or lengths of hoop iron, are nailed over the ends to prevent splitting. 
The stain sometimes left in a board by the slip is due to its not being moved 
along in the course of drying. This omission often spoils a whole log of good 
boards. The period in which the log is drying is known as " First Seasoning," 
and Mr Thomas Laslett, the great expert on timber, has given eighteen months 
as the required time for a log of oak from 16 to 20 in. square to season, and 
nine months for a fir of the same dimensions. The " Second Seasoning " occurs 
when the log has been converted into planks or boards, and the latter require at 
least two years on the stacks, and always more if possible before they are taken 
into the shops for use. Even then it 
is safer to rough it up and let it stand 
for a time before working it. In 
small shops, boards are laid on the 
beams under the roof, and get well 
seasoned. 

Hot Air Seasoning, or Desicca- 
tion. — This process is quicker and is 
often adopted as a second seasoning. 
The timber is placed in a chamber in 
which the air is kept at a temperature 
of 200 degs. Fahr. The disadvantage 
of this method is that it bleaches the 
wood, and also tends to make it 
brittle, especially mahogany and ash. 
The price for desiccation varies ac- 
cording to thickness, I -in. stuff being 
charged at 5s. per 100 ft. super. 

Wet Seasoning for logs is done by immersion in running water, which 
forces out the sap if the butt end meets the stream. This takes from fourteen to 
twenty days, and the log must then be stacked for natural and slow drying. 
Water seasoning is most suitable for logs used in damp situations, such as piles. 
Other methods are by " steaming " or " boiling," " charring," " oiling," and 
" smoking," but for all general purposes the natural method is acknowledged to 
be the best. Rare and fine woods require special processes. Ebony is totally 
immersed in water for about a year, and then carefully covered for slow drying. 
Holly is sometimes boiled, and then wrapped up to dry. In all cases it must be 
the nature of the wood and its uses which determine the process. 




Stacking Boards for Seasoning. 



Conversion. 

The methods of conversion vary according to the timber and market 
requirements. The simplest one is by the " tangent " or " bastard " cut right 
through the round log, as in f. 1, next page. This produces boards or planks 



332 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

with " waney " edges. Pine and fir logs are cut as in f. 2 below, the inner planks 
ii by 3 in. and the outer 7 by 2| in., or as the size of the log allows, f. 3, 
being an alternative cut. Fig. 4 shows the cut in a pitch pine log to obtain the 
figure for panel boards. In oak there are various cuts to obtain the best 
figure with the least waste. Fig. 5 shows four methods, and where the 
boards are cut in a line with the rays, the finest clash is obtained. In the 
top right quarter, wide and narrow boards are cut and the pieces left are 
used for tile laths, &c. The other quarters produce both plain and figured 
boards in cutting. In the Riga and Austrian oak the logs are " flitched " as 
in f. 6. The two planks cut from the centre produce "Wainscot" boards, 
but this term is applied to figured oak generally when it is cut in this way. 
The word is of Dutch origin, " Wagen-schot," wooden partition, or wall covering, 





1. Tangent Cut. 



2. Pine Planks. 



3. Pine Planks. 






4. Pitch Pine Boards. 



5. Conversion of Oak. 



6. An Oak Flitch for 
Wainscot. 



in which the best oak was used, hence the best boards cut from a log are 
"wainscot" wood. The heart end of the planks are cut off when necessary. 
" Stave Oak " for coopers is shipped in small balks from 3 to 6 ft. long, 
6 in. wide, and 3 and 4 in. thick. Soft woods are mostly imported in planks 
and deals of uniform width and thickness. A pine plank is usually 1 1 in. 
wide and 3 in. thick in varying lengths. When cut down the thickness it 
produces thin iJ-in. boards which are known as "one cut pine"; two cuts 
produce three boards under 1 in. known as " two cut pine," and so on up 
to " nine cut " for thin picture backing. All imported boards of hard 
wood are under nominal thickness, and if a board is required to finish 1 in. 
it would have to be worked from ij-in. stuff, or cut specially from the plank. 
Sawing down the width is called "deeping," and through the thickness 
" flatting." These cuts are charged at rates according to depth and length 



ENGLISH, FOREIGN, AND COLONIAL WOODS 333 

from 2^d. per dozen. Imported boards are "square edged" or cut from 
square sawn or quartered logs, whilst home converted logs produce boards 
with hewn or waney edges if by bastard cut, or one square edge if cut from 
squared stuff or flitches. 



Commercial Sizes and Terms. 

Log. — The tree trunk felled and roughly hewn. 

Balk. — The log squared for shipment and saw mill. 

Plank. — Usually 1 1 by 3 in. and any length in soft woods ; they may be 
over, but not under 9 by if in. in hard or soft woods. 

Deal. — -Usually a small plank 9 in. wide and over 2 in. thick. The term 
is applied to spruce, viz., white deal, and Baltic fir known as yellow and red 
deal according to locality. 

Boards. — Any length, width over 5 in., and thickness under 2 in. 

Batten. — From 7 to 9 in. wide, and between 1 and 2 in. thick, but wall 
battens are 2, 3, and 4 in. wide. 

Quartering. — The stuff produced by sawing or " flatting " a plank into 
lengths 4 by 3 in. or 3 by 2 in. thickness, also known as "solids." 

Scantling. — Any sawn lengths of odd dimensions; "stuff" is a general 
term. 

Square. — 100 super ft. 

Standard. — Equal to 120 deals, each 12 ft. by 9 by 3 in. or 270 cub. ft. 
This is the London standard which differs slightly from that in use on the 
Baltic, viz., 120 deals 6 ft. by 1 1 by 3 in. equals 165 cub. ft. 

Three Ply. — Thin boards made up of layers of veneer crossing each 
other to a thickness of T 3 F or \ in., can be obtained up to 4 ft. square, and 
are used for panels, drawer bottoms, &c. 

Matched Boards. — Usually imported in white and yellow deal 5 or 7 
in. wide, and sold by the square at 5s. or 7s. Soft woods are usually sold 
by the "load" (50 cub. ft.), "hundred" (120 deals), standard, or in smaller 
quantities by plank or deal at per foot " run " in the lengths. Hard woods 
in the log by cubic, and planks and boards by super feet in the inch. Special 
woods, like rosewood and ebony, which are imported in " billets," and box, 
which comes in " sticks," are sold by weight. At present there are no means 
of classifying or testing any new timbers which are introduced, although 
the authorities at Kew Gardens are always willing to identify or verify a 
specimen. A name is often given to a wood from its port of shipment, although 
the same timber may be shipped from two or more places. In the following 
list alternative names are given when they occur, as they differ even in England 
sometimes. As far as possible, correct prices and usual sizes are given, but 
it must be remembered that they fluctuate and vary considerably. This is 
also true of colour and texture, a fact which makes it inadvisable to lay down 
hard and fast rules. 



334 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



Hard Woods. 

Probably the hardest wood known is the ironwood of India, which is 
practically unworkable. Next come lignum vitae and the ebonies, whilst 
the softest are the poplars used for paper pulp. 

Oak, English (Quercus robur). — Two varieties, the " peduncled " with 
long stalks to its acorns, and the "sessiled," with short ones, but long stalks 
to its leaves. The wood of the first named is said to be the strongest and 
most durable, but as so much depends on soil and situation a doubt always 
exists. The woods are so much alike in appearance that it is also difficult 
to verify them. A third variety, "intermedia," with short stalks to acorns and 
leaves, the latter downy underneath, is uncommon, and is said to yield a much 
inferior wood. English is the most durable of all oaks, specially under water. 
The writer has examined and worked old beams over five hundred years old 
when the wood has been as hard as boards of five years' seasoning. In colour, 
various shades of light brown, sap yellowish, rings distinct and sometimes wavy 
(see p. 327), rays distinct and numerous in both kinds, producing the "silver 
grain," " clash," " figure," or " felt," when cut on the quarter. Grain rather 
coarse and open, difficult to work, warps and splits in drying, but always repays 
working up. Darkens with age or in contact with water. Used for church 
work, shipbuilding (the twisty growth providing good " knees " or " ribs "), 
cleaving, waggon, and railway work. It is difficult to get, and is but rarely 
used in cabinetwork. 

Brown Oak is a variety of English, or the timber of a tree which has lost 
its vitality, a form of decay known as " foxiness." The strong acid in the wood 
turns it into a warm brown colour, but does not destroy its texture. Used 
chiefly in veneers and dining-room furniture. 

Pollard Oak. — The timber of trees which have been " polled " and stunted 
in their growth. The wood is dark brown with a wavy grain and variable 
figure. Stumps and gnarls also produce finely figured veneers, very hard and 
tough, and difficult to lay. 

Bog or Black Oak. — Any oak will turn black if left in a damp place, but 
to blacken it right through it should be laid in a pond or bog. The name 
originated from the trunks of trees dug up out of Irish bogs. The wood is 
liable to split, and is only suitable for turnery, inlaying, veneer, and fancy 
articles. 

Baltic or European Oaks. — These constitute the chief oaks of commerce, 
and take their names from the ports of shipment. Most of them are 
Que reus robur. 

Riga Oak. — The product of Russian forests, and shipped at Riga. Also 
known as "Riga wainscot" from the numerous rays which produce boards of 
unusually fine figure. Eor this reason the logs are sawn and shipped in the 
shape shown in f. 6, p. 332, known as a " flitch." The wood is moderately hard, 
light brown in colour, rings and rays distinct, sap narrow and whitish, open in the 



ENGLISH, FOREIGN, AND COLONIAL WOODS 335 

grain, but takes polish and fume well. Logs and half logs from 18 to 25 ft. 
long, and 10 to 16 in. wide, and are sold at iod. to is. per foot in the inch. 
Riga oak is looked upon as the finest in quality of the Baltic oaks, but like all 
others it varies. The logs are sorted and marked or " bracked " according to 
the soundness or straight growth of the wood. The best logs are described as 
"crown," and are given a special mark, W, whilst the second, or twisty, coarse 
ones are also stamped WW, to show their inferiority. By these marks merchants 
can easily distinguish the qualities. 

Dantzig Oak. — Although taking its name from the port, this oak comes 
from the Polish forests, and is also shipped at Memel and Stettin. It is similar 
in colour and texture to the Riga quality, but is not so finely figured. Imported 
in logs 18 to 30 ft. long, 10 to 16 in. square, and planks from 2 to 6 in. thick. 
Staves are also shipped for cask work. They vary in size, but are usually 
3 or 6 ft. long, 6 in. wide, and 3 in. thick. These odd timbers have given it 
the name of stave oak ; sold at 9d. and iod. a foot in inch. 

Odessa Oak is also a Polish forest tree, but instead of being rafted down 
the rivers it is taken overland to the Black Sea and shipped at Odessa, the 
long journey partly seasoning it. In consequence of this it fetches a higher 
price on the English market. 

Austrian or Adriatic Oak. — This oak is the product of the great forests 
of Austria- Hungary, and is perhaps the most useful of the European hardwoods, 
owing to its even growth, good figure, and easy working. As a rule it is lighter 
in colour than the others, and has a small silvery figure somewhat resembling 
the English oak. It is fairly straight in the grain, rays and rings distinct, 
sapwood a greyish white, and does not twist in working. It is shipped from 
Trieste and Fiume in logs from 12 to 20 in. square, and sells at about 9d. 
per foot. It is largely used for furniture, takes fume and polish well, and makes 
up well for dados and panelling. 

Spanish Oak is rather dark, soft, and liable to shrink. The logs are small 
and curved, and they are imported chiefly for ship work. 

Italian Oak is very hard, and heavier than the English wood. It is darkish 
brown in colour, close in the grain, and difficult to work. In shipyards it is 
preferred to English oak for framings, but is unsuitable for board work. 

French Oak, from Brittany and Normandy, is very similar to English both 
in colour and texture but smaller in growth. It also shrinks and splits less in 
seasoning. 

Turkey Oak, the " Mossy Cupped Oak," has a broad sapwood and a 
reddish brown heart. It varies in hardness, but its numerous rays give it a very 
showy figure. 

American Oaks. 

A great quantity of oak comes from America, but it is all inferior to the 
European wood. Most of it is coarse in the grain, liable to shrink, and does not 
take fume well, but it is used in considerable quantities for cheap furniture, and 
owing to its great elasticity can be bent easily. 

American White Oak (Quercus alba). — Known as "Quebec" and " Balti- 



336 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

more," from Canada and North America. Light reddish brown with white sap, 
rays numerous and distinct, rings close and wavy ; heavy, hard, and fairly straight 
in the grain ; liable to shrink, but less than other American oaks. When 
quartered produces finely figured boards. Shipped from Quebec in logs from 
20 to 30 ft. long, and 11 to 20 in. square. Also planks and " square-edged " 
boards ; 5d. to 76. in the inch according to width. A similar name is given to 
the White Oak of the Western and Southern States. 

American Red Oak (Quercus rubra). — Canada and North- East America. 
Commonly named " American " or " Canadian " " Red." Reddish brown and 
pinkish, open grain and very porous, white sapwood, sometimes heavy and tough 
and often soft and brittle, inferior to White oak, liable to shrink and warp. 
Imported in logs, planks, and boards similar to above, and sells from 5d. 
a foot upwards. There are many other varieties of oak in America, among which 
is the Bur oak, very similar to the White and classed with it. It is a common 
forest tree from Manitoba to Texas. 

The Live Oak from the Southern States, a darkish brown wood, hard and 
tough, and said to be the toughest and strongest of American oaks ; and the 
Yellow Oak from the Eastern States, which is often sold as White oak but is 
inferior to it. 

African Oak {Oldfieldia africand). — West Tropical Africa, shipped from 
Sierra Leone. A dark reddish wood, very hard, close grained and extremely 
durable, and shrinks and warps but little. Sometimes called African Teak. 

African Oak (Lophira alatd). — From the Gold Coast, Lagos. Intensively 
hard, deep red in colour, coarse open grain, rays invisible. Both these woods 
are known on the London market, and are used for purposes where durable 
timber is necessary. The latter is often confused with African mahogany. 
The Zeen Oak from North- West Africa is a real oak of a rosy-yellow colour 
and very heavy. Oak grows plentifully in India, and is usually harder and 
heavier than European wood. 

Colonial " oaks " are described in the pages devoted to timbers of the 
various Colonies. 

Mahoganies. 

Mahogany was first introduced at the close of the sixteenth century, but 
did not come into general use for cabinetmakers until the middle of the 
eighteenth, when Chippendale made his name famous with it. Real mahogany 
(Swietenia makagoni) is now getting scarce, and many bastard woods are sold 
under the same name. Central America, Mexico, and the West Indian Islands 
form the main sources of supply of the real woods, whilst immense logs of 
inferior timber are shipped from Gambia, Lagos, and Benin, and sold as " African 
mahogany." Mahogany takes its place as the premier furniture wood from its 
warm rich colour, variety of fine figure, and good constructional qualities. It 
shrinks and warps less than most hardwoods, is generally proof against insect 
attack, and improves with age. 

Cuba Mahogany (Swietenia). — Sometimes called Spanish from the fact that 
the Spaniards once held possession of the West Indies. All the islands, Hayti, 



ENGLISH, FOREIGN, AND COLONIAL WOODS 337 

Cuba, Nassau, Jamaica, and Trinidad, supplied mahogany. The wood is a dark 
reddish brown, hard, heavy, close and straight in the grain, sapwood narrow, 
rings distinct, and rays just visible with flecks of lime in the pores. The quality 
and figure vary, and when cut near a branch the tree produces the best " curls " 
and " feathers " for veneers. Very small and choice logs are shipped from St 
Domingo, the port of Hayti, and they are seldom over 10 ft. long or 12 in. square. 
Smaller logs, rarely over 5 ft. in length and from 6 to 10 in. square, come from 
Nassau, whilst the larger Cuba wood yields logs of varying size from 15 to 25 ft. 
long, and 12 to 20 in. square. Good Cuba fetches iod. to is. 6d. per foot, 
according to width, and the veneers from 6d. to 2s. according to figure. 

Honduras Mahogany {Szvietenia). — From Central America. Lighter in 
colour and weight than Cuba, varies considerably in quality ; good wood is 
clean, crisp, and uniform in grain and colour, easy to work and does not cast ; 
inferior wood is pale brown, soft and spongy, coarse grained and woolly. The 
plain stuff was sometimes called " Baywood," but much of it is well figured and 
produces the " Fiddle Back " for veneers. Honduras is the best wood for 
interior work, drawers, panels, and as a reliable ground for veneering. It 
shrinks but little, and is consequently used with pine for pattern making. Logs 
20 to 30 ft. long, and 12 to 24 in. wide, price from 6d. per foot upwards. 
A supply of mahogany also comes from Guatemala and Nicaragua ; often 
called Laguna wood, but it is similar to Honduras and is sometimes sold 
as such. 

Mexican Mahogany. — This timber, though inferior to Honduras in many 
respects, is a good substitute for it, and is usually of much larger dimensions, 
yielding logs from 15 to 36 in. square, especially from the district of Minatitlan. 
The wood is generally a good colour, but varies considerably in quality. Much 
of it is soft and spongy near the heart, and so liable to shakes and inclined to be 
brittle. The best is known as Tabasco wood, and quantities of similar timber 
come from the districts of Santa Ana and Tonala. Much of the Tabasco quality 
has a good roe figure, which, though difficult to clean up, shows well in the 
polish. The exceptional width of Mexican mahogany makes it suitable for 
counter and fascia boards. The price is similar to Honduras, and increases with 
the width. " Caoba " is the Spanish name for this wood. 

African Mahogany, " Dubini." — Said to be Khayu senegalen&s, but, as in the 
case of Mexican, there appears to be some doubt as to its natural order. It is 
shipped from the Gold Coast, Benin, and Lagos, and is also known as " Gambia," 
" Niger," and " Lagos," although these names only specify the district. The 
best quality, from Lagos, is hard, fairly close in the grain, and sometimes a good 
colour, but as a rule the wood is pale as though bleached, and coarse as well as 
soft and woolly. A few logs are found to be well figured, but though it varies 
in quality, the general texture of the wood is not suitable for good cabinetwork. 
Imported in logs up to 3 ft. wide, and 12, 15, and 20 ft. long; price from 
6d. per foot. 

The following timbers resembling mahogany are sometimes used as such : — 

Toon or Indian Mahogany {Cedreta toona). — Or Moulmien Cedar, from 
Bengal and Burmah. Fairly hard, pale red, straight grained and fragrant, but 
liable to shakes ; suitable for cabinetwork. 



338 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

Padouk, or Andaman Redwood (Pterocarpns indicus). — From Burmah and 
Andaman Islands. Dark red, heavier than mahogany, hard, close grained, 
slightly fragrant, with variety in figure. 

Sabicu, or Savicu. — From the West Indies, especially Cuba. Dark reddish 
brown, hard, heavy, close in the grain, and sometimes wavy ; does not split or 
shrink much in drying. Altogether a good substitute for mahogany. 

Angelique.— From Brazil and British Guiana. Reddish brown, fairly hard, 
free from knots. Wavy figure and unpleasant smell in working, said to be 
extremely durable. 

Mora. — From Trinidad and Guiana. Reddish brown, fine curly figure, 
hard, and close grained, takes good polish, and is a good substitute for Cuba 
mahogany. 

Satine\— Guiana. Deep reddish brown, sometimes well figured and lustrous, 
hard, and close grained, works up well and takes good polish, quite a good 
cabinet wood. 

Santa Maria. — Honduras and Central America. Pale red, fairly hard, 
does not shrink or warp much. Very similar to Mexican mahogany and often 
mistaken for it. 

Australian or " Colonial " mahoganies are described under " Colonial 
Woods." 



Walnuts. 

English Walnut (Juglans regid) is but rarely used in furniture and is 
difficult to get. It varies in quality according to growth. Usually pale greyish 
brown in colour, but sometimes marked with dark veins ; fairly hard but easy 
to work. It was largely used for Queen Anne furniture, but has been found to 
be a prey to worms. Used chiefly for gun stocks. 

Italian Walnut (/. regid). — Southern Europe generally. Good quality wood, 
is light brown in colour with darker stripes, and is chiefly cut into veneers for 
the "herring bone" panels and borders used in furniture of the Queen Anne 
style. The wood is fairly hard, even grained, and usually easy to work. There 
is a wide sapwood and considerable waste in boards, consequently it is an 
expensive wood and is only used in the best work as well as for piano cases. 
It is shipped from Italy in planks 4 and 6 in. thick, 4 to 12 ft. long, and from 
12 to 24 in. wide. Good stuff fetches is. a foot in the inch. The "Burrs" are 
cut into veneers for pianos and fancy tables. 

Black Sea or Circassian Walnut is a finely figured wood with an open 
grain quite distinct from the Italian wood. It is largely used in veneers which 
show a dark wavy figure, but rarely found in cabinet woods. Though inferior 
to Italian walnut in texture, it is usually classed with it and sold under similar 
conditions. It is imported in short logs 6 to 10 ft. long and 9 to 18 in. square. 

French Walnut is similar to Italian but inferior in colour and figure, much 
of it being quite plain. 

American Black Walnut (Juglans nigra). — Eastern North America, but 
most abundant in the Central States. Dark purplish brown with narrow sap- 
wood. Hard, rather coarse in the grain, but the best wood is fairly easy to 



ENGLISH, FOREIGN, AND COLONIAL WOODS 339 

work, with not much figure ; more durable than European walnut. It stands 
well and shrinks but little. Shipped from New York in logs from 10 to 20 ft. 
long and 12 to 25 in. square; also in planks and square edge boards, which 
are sold from 6d. a foot upwards. 

African or Golden Walnut. — From West Africa, introduced by Sir Alfred 
Jones ; is a bastard Cedrela, golden brown in colour, hard, coarse grain, good figure, 
works up well, and is now being used for bedroom suites in place of black walnut. 

Satin Walnut or Sweet Gum {Liquidambar styraciflua). — Eastern States. 
A reddish brown wood with darker veins, works up with a satiny surface, hence its 
name, soft and easy to work, but warps and twists considerably. Imported in 
planks and boards, and used for the cheapest furniture. The White Walnut or 
Butternut is a somewhat similar wood, but little used in England. 



Satinwoods. 

East Indian Satinwood (Chloroxylon swielenia). — Ceylon and Central and 
Southern India. Light or darkish yellow, sapwood greyish, heavy, hard, and 
close in the grain, durable, from its oily nature. Some wood quite plain but 
generally with a beautiful figure of striped and zigzag markings. Used chiefly 
in veneers both knife and saw cut, and sold from 6d. to 2s. 6d. per foot. The 
curls and feathers are usually very fine in this wood. It is shipped from 
Singapore in logs 12 ft. long and up to 2 ft. wide. 

West Indian Satinwood (Zanthoxylon). — From the West Indian Islands, 
Nassau, Bahamas, and Dominica. An old gold colour, darker than the East 
Indian and closer in the grain. Produces a fine flowery and mottled fiddle-back 
figure. Veneers fetch a high price, and the logs are smaller than those from the 
East Indies. The "yellow woods" of Australia are also known by the same 
name. 

Rosewoods. 

Rosewood, South American (Dalbergia nigra). — From Brazil, Rio, and 
Bahia ports, and varieties from the West Indies, Honduras, and Ceylon. Dark 
reddish brown in varying tints, with almost black or darker brown stripes and 
markings, works up with a fragrant smell from which it takes its name. Some 
wood straight in the grain, and much, which is cut into veneers, with a showy 
spreading figure. The rings are often irregular and wavy, and the wood is 
heavy and hard. The logs are usually rotten at the heart or shattered with 
heart shake, which necessitates a conversion to " half rounds " or flitches ; and 
owing to the difficulties of measurement, the wood is sold by weight at prices 
varying from ^10 to £30 per ton. 

Indian Rosewood or Blackwood (Dalbergia latifolid). — A purplish black 
wood, and, as a rule, fragrant ; close in the grain and mostly without figure, 
works up closely and is usually very tough. Exported from Bombay and sold 
by weight. Bastard rosewoods are non-fragrant, and are usually of a sickly, 
purplish colour, and coarse grained. One known as " Borneo Rosewood " pro- 
duces wide veneers but with little figure. 



34© MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 



Ebonies. 

Ebony (natural order Ebe.7ia.cece) varies in colour from yellowish white, red, 
brown, green, to jet black, which is the heartwood. It is one of the heaviest 
and hardest woods known, and it grows chiefly in India, whilst varieties come 
from the West Indies and Tropical and South Africa. 

Black Ebony. — Southern India, Ceylon, Burmah, also from South Africa, 
known as " Cape Ebony," usually jet black. The best black is said to come 
from Mauritius. 

Brown Ebony. — Also from India, Burmah, and West Indies. Brown, with 
darker blackish stripes, and not quite so dense as the black. 

Green Ebony or Cocus Wood. — India and the West Indies. Varies in 
colour, sometimes greenish black or brown. Used in veneers and for musical 
instruments, such as flutes. A variety with a reddish tint is known as Red 
Ebony, and comes from Mauritius. 

Coromandel Wood or Bombay Ebony, from the Coromandel Coast, is 
generally black with yellowish mottles or thin yellow stripes, a feature which 
makes it an extremely beautiful and expensive wood, the veneers fetching from 
2s. 6d. per foot. 

Calamander Wood. — From Ceylon. A dark brown, densely hard wood, 
black stripes and figure. Very scarce. 

Marblewood. — From Andaman Islands. Alternate bands of black or brown, 
and grey or yellow, going right through the wood. There are quite a number 
of bastard ebonies, and the "German ebony" of commerce used for backs of 
brushes, knife handles, &c, is pearwood or sycamore stained. Ebony does 
not yield very large timber. The sap is usually wide and yellowish, the heart 
producing the real ebony, or black wood, scarcely ever reaching over 10 
in. wide. It is imported in " billets " and small logs which fetch from £5 
to £10 per ton, and they are generally converted into veneer, or used for 
turnery and mathematical instruments. 



Small Fancy Woods. 

Snakewood, or Leopard Wood. — From British Guiana. Dark chestnut 
brown with darker mottled bands running from the heart at right angles 
and less distinct near the sap. The wood is hard but generally shaky. Used 
for walking sticks, violin bows, veneering and inlaying. The sap resembles 
boxwood, and is sometimes 4 or 5 in. wide as well as being intensely hard. 
Sold by weight. 

Kingwood, or Violetwood. — From Tropical America and Guiana. Dark 
purple with darker streaks, hard and close grained. Imported in small "sticks," 
seldom exceeding 5 in. wide, and cut into veneers for bandings and inlaying. 

Purplewood, or Purpleheart. — From Brazil and Guiana. Good quality 
wood is an even-toned purple which darkens on exposure. Close grained, 
no figure, hard but fairly easy to work. Veneers 12 to 15 in. wide. 



ENGLISH, FOREIGN, AND COLONIAL WOODS 341 

Amboyna. — From Amboyna and Ceram in the Molucca Islands. Shipped 
from Singapore. Known chiefly from its burrs, which are chestnut or reddish 
brown, and beautifully spotted, mottled, and figured with a variety of markings, 
of which the close spotted is the choicest. Sold in slabs by weight, and cut 
into veneers. A slab of plain wood at Kew is over 6 ft. wide. 

Thuya. — A burr from Morocco and Algeria, said to be the " citron " 
wood of the Romans. Bright chestnut brown with groups of spots which are 
generally holes, and a wild curly figure resembling burr yew. Distinguished 
from Amboyna by fewer spots, and which are separated into groups of six 
or nine. The wood is also harder. Sold in parcels or leaves of veneer. 

Burr Yew {English). — At one time a choice wood for knife boxes and 
tea caddies. A reddish brown with wavy figure and dark spots, intensely 
hard, and showy when polished, but difficult to work. The straight wood of 
the yew is hard and durable, but fairly easy to work. It has been proved 
to be almost indestructible under ground. It is sometimes used for chairmaking, 
but is always difficult to get. 

Tulipwood (Brazil). — A fleshy red or rose-coloured wood with stripes 
of yellow or grey. The name is taken from its resemblance to the English 
tulip. Hard and close grained. Used for veneers and bandings. 

Zebrawood. — From Brazil and Guiana. Reddish brown with dark stripes, 
hence its name. Used for bandings and inlaying. 

Porcupine Wood. — A palm tree or coco-nut from India and the Tropics. 
Being a palm the fibres resemble the black and white quills of the porcupine, 
which also appear as spots on the cross section. Used for inlaying and walking 
sticks. The brown variety is known as Pheasant or Partridge wood, but 
the same name is given to other woods with similar figure which are not 
real palms. 

Olive Wood. — The Mediterranean, Italy, and Spain. Light brown with 
dark wavy mottles and veins, fairly hard, easy to work or carve. Used in 
veneers, and thin boards for boxes, frames, &c. 

Lignum Vitae. — British Guiana and West Indies. Intensely hard, dark 
brown or greenish black, with yellow sap, which is said to be as durable and 
hard as the heartwood. Used for cogs, plumbers' tools, and ship blocks. 

Box. — Central and Southern Europe. Light yellow, very dense, hard, and 
difficult to split. Imported in sticks of varying thickness from Circassia and 
Turkey, and sold by weight. 

Harewood or Mousewood and Greywood. — Stained sycamore, which 
when fresh has a blue-grey tint. After exposure this turns to a brownish grey, 
giving the name of harewood. It is found on old French and eighteenth 
century cabinets, used in veneers, but ^-in. stuff can now be stained right 
through. 

Holly (Ilex aquifolium). — Central Europe and an American variety. Trees 
in England grow to a girth of 20 in., but they rarely get into the timber yards. 
The wood is an ivory or greenish white, hard, close in grain, and even in 
texture, inferior wood coarse. Used for printers' blocks, engraving, inlaying, 
and stained for imitation ebony. 

Cherry. — Europe and North Asia, America, and Australia. Yellowish 



342 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

brown and sometimes a pinkish red, hard, and varying in texture, both close 
grained and coarse. English wood has a reddish tinge, but there are many 
varieties. The American and Australian cherry woods are usually a good 
colour, easy to work, and are useful for inlaying and small interior work. 

Pearwood. — Europe and West Asia. A pinkish red centre with yellowish 
white sapwood. Hard, close-grained even texture easily worked with a satiny 
surface. English trees vary both in quality and colour. Australian produce 
good figured wood. Used chiefly for drawing instruments, engraving, inlaying, 
and stained for ebony. 

Apple. — English wood is very hard and heavy, reddish brown with white 
sapwood, warps badly, and is sometimes extremely brittle. Good for mallet 
heads, turnery, tool handles, &c. 



English and other Hard Woods and Broad-leaf Soft Woods. 

Ash {Fraxinus excelsior). — Great Britain, Central and Northern Europe, and 
America. English wood a brownish white, rings distinct, rays almost invisible, 
sapwood very wide and difficult to distinguish from heartwood, and unlike most 
woods the two can be used together. The wood is best known for its toughness 
and elasticity, hence is used for shafts, cooperage, and coach building. 

American White Ash. — The wood is much whiter than the English or 
European, and the sapwood is more distinct. It is imported in logs 12 to 25 ft. 
long, and 12 to 18 in. square, and also in planks and square-edged boards. It 
is the ash known in the bedroom furniture trade, and sells from 6d. per foot 
in the inch. 

Canadian or Quebec Ash. — Similar to the American, but darker in colour. 

Hungarian Ash. — The name given to the finely figured wood from Austria, 
Hungary, and the Pyrenees. The wood is a whitish yellow, and the wavy 
figure and mottle known as " ram's horn " makes it a showy wood for panels, 
hence it is usually sold in veneers. 

Beech (Fagns sylvaticd). — Common to Great Britain, Europe generally, and 
America. English beech is usually a dull white with a reddish tinge, but the 
colour varies with the soil. Rings clearly marked, and rays numerous and 
distinct. The wood is hard, heavy, and tough, and durable under water. In 
furniture it was used largely for "stuff-over" frames of chairs and couches, and 
in this respect is often attacked by worms. With elm and ash it is used in the 
manufacture of small chairs, and is often stained for mahogany. The qualities 
in beech are divided into red and white, and the red is generally accepted as the 
best. Beech is plentiful in France, Germany, and Austria, where it is also used 
as fuel. It is the staple wood for benches, tool handles, mallets, and engineering 
purposes, and is imported from Germany in large quantities both in log and 
plank. 

American Beech. — Known as "red" and "white," from the United States 
and Canada. Imported from St John's and New Brunswick, and used for 
similar purposes to the European beech, but generally inferior in quality. 



ENGLISH, FOREIGN, AND COLONIAL WOODS 343 

Birch (Betula alba). — Common to Great Britain and Europe generally. 
Light reddish brown in colour with fine silvery streaks in the grain. Fairly 
hard and even grained, easy to work, but not very durable, and liable to worm 
attack. Often used as a substitute for beech in chairmaking. European wood 
from Prussia, Germany, and Sweden is usually imported with the bark on. 

American Birch. — Eastern United States and Canada. Also known as 
" cherry birch," " mahogany birch," and " mountain mahogany." A red-brown 
wood which darkens on exposure, hard and strong, and often finely figured near 
the edges with wide flashes of darker wood. Sometimes stained and described 
as " Colonial Mahogany," and at one time largely used for bedroom furniture. 
Shipped from Quebec in logs 12 to 18 ft. long, and 12 to 20 in. square, and also 
in planks, and sold at 5d. and 6d. per foot in the inch. 

Chestnut, Sweet or Spanish (Castanea vesca). — England, especially southern 
counties, and Southern Europe and America. Light brown in colour, similar 
to oak, but no medullary rays showing, and a white sapwood. Grain rather 
coarse and open, softer than oak, and liable to warp. Sometimes used for dados 
and panelling in place of oak where a dull, even tone with no figure is desired, 
but otherwise in little use, whilst the wood of the Horse Chestnut is coarse, 
and only suitable for fences and farming work. 

Maple {Acer campestre). — Common to England, Central Europe, and 
America. Yellowish white, and good stuff almost white, hard, tough, and 
working up with a silky surface. The rays are very fine but distinct, and some 
wood produces good curly or mottled figure. Used for turnery and knife 
handles, and the figured wood as veneers for interior finishings for boxes and 
jewel cabinets. 

American or Bird's Eye Maple. — Known officially in America as " Sugar 
Maple." Eastern States of North America. Sapwood whitish, heartwood 
yellowish brown, fairly hard, close grained, and working up with fine smooth 
surface. The figure known as "bird's eye" appears in the form of small spots, 
or pits, at varying intervals, and they are linked up with wavy lines in the 
grain. The "blister" figure is produced by the rotary lathe cutting spirally, 
and other figures are the "curly" and "fiddle back" produced by a certain 
growth and accentuated by methods of cutting. The wood and veneers are 
imported from St John's and Quebec, and are chiefly used for ships' cabins, 
trams, railway carriage, and office work. Maple is but seldom used for furniture. 

Sycamore {Acer pseudo-platanus). — Allied to the Maple but known as the 
Plane in Scotland. White, hard, and tough, and liable to warp. Rays fine and 
numerous, which give a lustrous surface. Used chiefly for turnery, coach panels, 
rollers for washing machines, and veneers for cabinetwork, which are stained 
all colours as well as black for Ebony. It is common to England, Europe, and 
America, but the supply is limited. The original Sycamore was used to make 
Egyptian mummy cases. 

Plane Tree. — Two well-divided timbers, one the Eastern (P/atanus 
orientalis) of Europe and North Africa, and the other the Western (Platamts 
Occident alis) of North America, also known as " button wood " and " lacewood." 
Reddish brown resembling the red beech, heavy, hard, and tough, cross grained 
and liable to warp. Often used as a substitute for birch or beech in chair 



344 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

frames. The rays are broad and darker than the wood, and when cut radially 
produce the figure which gives it the name of " lacewood " as sold in fretwork 
boards. The well-known tree in the London streets which sheds its bark in 
flakes is the Eastern plane. 

Poplar. — " Black," " white," " Lombardy," and " trembling " or aspen tree, 
all producing soft whitish woods of little use except for rough fencing and 
farm work. 

Teak (Tectona grandis). — Central and Southern India, Burma, and Ceylon. 
Dark brown, fairly hard, and straight in the grain, and, as a rule, easy to work ; 
darkens on exposure, and is sometimes finely figured. It contains an oily resin 
which throws off an unpleasant odour in working, and when hardened in the 
pores easily blunts the tool. This resin makes teak a valuable and durable 
wood for civil engineering and railway and shipbuilding. It is often used in 
shop and public office work for dados, flooring, table and counter tops. Im- 
ported from Moulmein and Rangoon in logs 12 to 30 ft. long and squaring 12 
to 20 in., and sold from yd. per foot upwards according to width. 

Bastard Teak produces a finely figured wood sold in veneers as " Pheasant 
wood." It is dark brown with old gold and darker markings, and makes a good 
showy wood for bandings and centres. Also known as " Granite Wood." 

Greenheart, from South America and West Indies, is a brownish green 
wood, extremely durable and insect-proof under water. Imported in logs for 
piles and shipbuilding. 

Hickory. — Closely allied to the walnuts of North America. A reddish 
white wood, hard, tough, elastic, and coarse in the grain ; specially suitable and 
used for carriage building and handles for tools. 

Hornbeam. — A common forest tree in England and Central Europe, and 
imported from France. Yellowish white in colour, hard, close grained and very 
tough, with little or no sap. Used for tool handles, cogs, and printers' rollers. 

Elm. — English, known as " Common " and " Wych Elm," a tree also dis- 
tributed over Europe. The wood is light brown in colour with yellowish sap ; 
hard, tough, coarse grained, and liable to twist and warp. Very durable under 
ground or water, and formerly used for water pipes. Used for coach building, 
seats for Windsor chairs, naves for wheels, coffin boards, and pulley blocks. 

Canadian Rock Elm, from Eastern United States, is also a very tough, 
durable wood but easier to work than the English elm. Straighter and closer in 
the grain, but somewhat similar in appearance except when seen in the board, 
when it does not show such a wild twisty texture. Shipped in logs 12 to 25 
ft. long and squaring from 12 to 18 in. Used for similar purposes to English 
elm and selling 4d. per foot. 

Orham Wood, from Canada, is a species of elm but is much coarser than 
English wood, and is often sold as Rock elm. The name is taken from the 
French orme = e\m. 

Lancewood. — From Honduras, Cuba, Jamaica. Yellowish white, sap and 
heart alike, grain very close, hard as box, tough and elastic. Used for turnery, 
shafts, and imported in small spars. 

Lime, or Linden {Tilia parvifolid). — Common to England and Europe 
generally. Light yellow, sometimes with a reddish tinge, soft, light, easy to 



ENGLISH, FOREIGN, AND COLONIAL WOODS 345 

work, and close grained. Much prized by carvers and used by Grinling 
Gibbons for much of his work. Imported from Europe, the Baltic principally, 
and also used for turnery and interior piano work. 

Basswood, or American Lime {Tilia americand). — Eastern United States 
and Canada. Whitish to lemon colour, soft, close grained, and sometimes 
stringy and tough. Called Bass from the inner bark or " bast," and often con- 
fused with and sold as whitewood. The wood shrinks considerably and is not 
very durable. The tree produces wide boards free from knots, and it is used 
extensively for cheap furniture, turnery, toys, and paper pulp. As a rule it is 
distinguished from whitewood by its deeper lemon colour and close grain. Im- 
ported in planks and boards and sold at about 4d. per foot. 

Whitewood, or Tulip Tree. — Also known as Yellow Poplar and Canary 
Wood. This is the wood of a large forest tree known as the Tulip Tree 
(Liriodendron tulipifera), abundant in the Central and Southern States of North 
America, and shipped from New York and Baltimore. The tree grows to an 
immense size, often to a diameter of from 3 to 6 ft, with a clear stem up to 70 
ft. The heartwood is a lemon colour but varies, and the sapwood is whitish 
with grey or bluish streaks. The texture varies from an even, straight grain to 
a coarse one, and the qualities sold on the market are known as "prime" and 
" sap." As a rule it is easy to work, is liable to shrink and warp, takes stain and 
polish well, and it is free from knots. Occasionally some finely figured mottled 
veneers are cut, but it is most used in the solid. Imported in planks and square 
edged boards of varying widths, and used largely for cheap furniture, and as a 
substitute for pine. Price according to width from 3d. per foot in the inch, 
planed wood extra. 

American Poplar is often sold as whitewood, but it is whiter, softer, and 
stringy. It is used as " three ply " for drawing boards, and is also known as 
" cottonwood," one of the softest of pulp woods for paper making. 

Willow. — Various species of Salix, the most important being the white 
willow, common to England and Europe generally. Its chief virtue is in being 
soft, light, and non-splitting, even when badly bruised, hence its use for cricket 
bats. It is also in demand for water wheels and steamboat paddles, but is not 
a cabinet wood, though occasionally made up into chairs. 

Alder is another soft wood which does not warp or split. White when 
freshly cut, it turns to a fleshy red. It is durable under water, and is imported 
from the Baltic for the bobbin and charcoal trade. 



Needle-Leafed, Coniferous Trees, and Soft Woods. 

Yellow Pine (Pinus strobus). — A forest tree of North America from Quebec 
to the Southern States, and known there as White Pine. It was planted in 
England by Lord Weymouth, and is sometimes named after him. Usually of 
a straw colour with bluish grey sapwood, soft, easy to work, light, and straight 
grained, it is the softest but most reliable of the pine woods, but getting scarce. 
It warps and shrinks but little, and the " first " quality is free from resin and 



346 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

knots, although the wood is sometimes subject to cup and heart shake. It makes 
a good ground for veneering upon, and is clean and suitable for interior work, 
and a quantity of wood is used up in the making of drawing boards. Logs 
from 12 to 30 ft. long and 12 to 24 in. wide are shipped from Quebec and 
St John's, but it is imported chiefly in planks 1 1 by 3 in. and upwards, 
which are sold in selected "firsts" or "prime," "seconds," and "thirds" in 
quality, the best fetching is. per foot run in 1 1 by 3 in. planking. The 
commonest is usually cut into very thin stuff for picture backing. 

Yellow Deal (Pinus sylvestris). — Known as Northern Pine, Scotch, Danzig, 
Riga, and Baltic Fir, as well as Red Deal. Europe and North Asia, the names 
above indicating the ports of shipment. The colour of the wood varies from 
yellow to reddish brown, which tends to darken in drying, leaving the sap 
whitish with a red tint. It is resinous, and the rings are clearly marked and 
close, and knots appear at irregular intervals. The best wood, which comes 
from the Baltic, usually Danzig, works up clean and silky in planing, and is the 
selected stuff for good house building. It is remarkable for its durability in wet 
or dry situations, and although not a cabinetmaker's wood, it is not an un- 
common thing to find it used as a carcase wood in Queen Anne furniture and as 
a veneer ground. Logs are shipped at the Baltic ports from the forests of 
Russia, Poland, 18 to 40 ft. long and 11 to 18 in. square, and also in planks and 
deals. It is also imported from Archangel, and Sweden and Norway in various 
qualities, the Swedish ranking lowest. The home-grown wood is inferior, and 
is generally used up for pit wood. Good planks 3 by 1 1 in. fetch is. per foot 
run, but large quantities are bought by the "standard." 

White Deal, or Spruce (Picea exce/sa).—" White Fir," " Norway Spruce," and 
White Deal in commerce. Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and " Prussia," once 
named Pruce, from which it takes its name. The slender stems are shipped 
whole for spars and scaffold poles. The larger wood comes in deals and planks. 
It is yellowish or straw-white, tough, and springy. The small knots are brittle, 
and the wood warps and shrinks moderately, and is not very resinous. It is 
used for kitchen dressers and tables, steps, packing-cases, and pulp, and is con- 
siderably cheaper than yellow deal. 

American or Black Spruce is a similar wood, but with small black loose 
knots, and is shipped from St John's and Nova Scotia. 

Pitch Pine (Pinus australis), with varieties. — Southern States of North 
America, Georgia, Florida, and Carolina. Very heavy and resinous, autumn 
rings broad and dark brown, general appearance of wood an orange-yellow. 
Some wood with wavy and showy figure, known as panel wood. Difficult to 
work and season owing to resin, and liable to shrink considerably. Extremely 
durable, and used chiefly for ship work, piles, and for church and school 
furniture. Shipped from Savannah, Pensacola, and Darien in logs 12 to 18 in. 
square and from 20 to 30 ft. long, and also in planks. Pitch pine produces the 
turpentine of commerce. 

Oregon Pine, or Douglas Fir. — North-Western America. The wood 
varies, but is usually a reddish white with a narrow yellow sap. It is rather 
heavy, hard, and tough. The knots are distributed in small clusters as in larch, 
and the wood does not warp much, and is fairly straight grained. It is a clean 



ENGLISH, FOREIGN, AND COLONIAL WOODS 347 

wood for interior work, but is chiefly used for shipbuilding and carpentry, and 
especially for ships' masts. The flagstaff at Kew Gardens is a well-known 
specimen 159 ft. high, and the logs or "spars" vary from 30 to 100 ft. in length, 
and from 10 to 40 in. in diameter. 

Sequoia, or Californian Redwood.— A very soft, reddish brown wood, not 
strong, brittle, easily split, and with a spongy texture. Used for interior work, 
panels, backs, drawers, &c. 

Carolina or Columbian Pine. — British Columbia and North Carolina, 
known in the trade as " Carolina." Dark yellow in colour with lighter strips, 
light and soft, easy to work, but coarse in texture, fragrant, and does not warp 
much ; used for interior work. Imported in logs, planks, and boards from 12 to 
20 ft. long, and from 12 in. upwards in width. 

Canadian Red Pine is a whitish wood tinged with yellow, and works up 
with a silky surface somewhat similar to the best yellow deal. It is tough, and 
does not shrink very much though resinous. 

Swiss Pine, the wood of the silver fir, is imported from Switzerland, chiefly 
as sounding boards for pianos. It is also the wood used by the natives for toys 
and carvings. 

Larch (Larix enropcea). — A native of the European Alps and Northern 
Europe generally, and well known among the conifers of the United Kingdom. 
Mostly used for building purposes, scaffold poles, and fencing ; very durable but 
shrinks badly., Venice is said to have been built on larch piles, and the tree 
produces the Venice turpentine of commerce. American Larch or Tamarack, 
from Canada and North-Eastern States, is a similar wood used for much the 
same purposes. 

Cedar. — Out of some thirty named varieties, the two best known to 
commerce are the Pencil or American Cedar and the West Indian. The 
former (Juniperous virginiana) is the well-known pencil wood, very fragrant, 
soft, easy to work, but brittle. Brownish red in colour, with rather wide, whitish 
sapwood. Used chiefly for interior work, drawers, pigeon holes, and workboxes. 
It comes from the Southern States. The West Indian " Honduras " or 
" Mexican " cedar is the reddish wood resembling mahogany. It is fragrant, 
sometimes figured, and varies in colour, the light wood being used for cigar 
boxes. The chief supplies come from the West Indian Islands, Central and 
Tropical America, but there are many bastard woods of good and bad quality. 
The Indian Cedars are reddish woods, fragrant and durable, with some 
resemblance to mahogany, one being known as " Indian Mahogany," or " Toon." 
White Cedar, really a cypress, is not quite white, but lighter than the above, 
and is used for canoe building. Lebanon, the true cedar, a tree well known and 
prized on English lawns, and introduced towards the end of the seventeenth 
century, is but little known for its wood, which is reddish brown, fragrant, very 
soft and spongy. 

Cypress is a reddish brown wood of varying tints and qualities, and a native 
of Greece and Persia. It is very durable, and was the wood used for mummy 
cases, but is now but little known. The American Cypress, or white cedar of 
the Southern States, is a deciduous tree, and produces a reddish or whiter wood, 
according to situation of growth, and is used chiefly in America. The Cypress 



348 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

Pine of North and East Australia, of several varieties, has a strong fragrance, 
something like camphor, and is sometimes called camphor wood, but cypress is 
but little known or used in England. 



Woods Producing Dyes. 

Logwood. — From Central America and Jamaica. Dark brownish red, and 
very hard. Imported in short logs 3 to 4 ft. long, and sold in chips which 
produce red or black dyes. 

Fustic. — A yellow wood from Tropical America, producing a well-known 
yellow dye. 

Red Sanders Wood. — From India and Ceylon. A hard, deep red wood, 
soluble in alcohol, and a variety, which is a purplish red soluble in water, 
known as red sandalwood, from India and Tropical America. 

Brazilwood. — From Tropical America, also used for its red dye, and one 
from India of the same species, known as Sappanwood. 

Sandalwood of India is one of many fragrant smelling woods with a 
similar name, used in Indian work, but known for its sweet scented oil, which 
is an important commercial product. 

Camwood, from West Africa, is also imported, and distilled into a red 
dye for cottons, whilst Camphor Wood, from India, China, and Japan, is a 
soft yellowish brown wood, imported specially for entomological cases for its 
strong fragrance. 

Sumach, also known as wild olive, a dark yellow wood, is imported from 
Greece as a dye for leather and woollen stuffs. 



Cabinet Woods from the Colonies. 

New Zealand, Tasmania, Australia, New South Wales, Victoria, 
Queensland, South Africa. 

The following details of Colonial woods are taken from official handbooks 
kindly lent for the purpose by the Agents-General for the Colonies named. 
Many of the specimens described have also been tested and used by the authors, 
or verified in the Timber Museum at Kew Gardens. 



New Zealand. 

The official list names eighty-six timber trees, but of these only a few are 
known to the English trade, or as commercial woods. Foremost among them 
is the Kauri Pine {Agathis australis), also known as " Cowdie" or New Zealand 
Pine. It is a conifer and sfrows to lanre dimensions. Light reddish brown 



ENGLISH, FOREIGN, AND COLONIAL WOODS 349 

in colour, rays and rings partly visible, wide whitish sap, easy to work with 
a silky surface, close and straight in grain, fairly hard for pine, takes stain 
and polish well. The coarse stuff inclined to warp and twist, but best boards 
usually free from blemish, knot, or shake. Used largely for vat-making, and 
successfully in church work, dados, panelling, &c. Imported in logs and planks 
from i to 3 and 4 ft. wide, and up to 20 ft. long. Price according to width 
about 4d. per foot super in inch. There are over a dozen varieties, the chief 
being known as " Mottled Kauri," which is highly ornamental and is cut into 
veneers for cabinetwork. The mottling is caused by the indentation of the 
bark in the growth, and takes the form of dark elongated markings in the 
lighter wood. 

Rimu, or Red Pine {Dacrydium cupressinuni). — A conifer not so well known 
as Kauri. Deep red in colour, figured with dark or light streaks, works up 
well and takes good polish, wide sap rays invisible, shrinks laterally. Suitable 
for bank and office work, ships' panels, &c. Burrs produce finely figured veneers. 
Logs and planks from 1 to 2 ft. wide, 12 to 20 ft. long. Not much known in 
England. 

Honeysuckle or Rewa {Knightia excelsa). — Two varieties, one reddish 
brown and the other a " light silver hue," but both with figure similar to " lace- 
wood " or plane tree when cut radially. The wood is fine and close in the grain, 
rays and rings distinct. Suitable for panels and cabinetwork generally. 

Black Pine, or Matai (Podocarpus spicatd). — Reddish brown or bright 
cinnamon colour, smooth and silky texture, fine and even grain, strong, fairly 
hard and durable, rays and rings visible, does not shrink much in drying. A 
variety called Miro is finely figured. Used for cabinet and building work, 
and yields timber 2 to 4 ft. wide and log length. 

Totara, or New Zealand Yew {Podocarpus totard). — A rich rosy red in 
colour, sapwood whitish, heavy, fairly hard, close grained, rays and rings 
visible, does not warp much, said to be a good substitute for mahogany, and 
resembles pencil cedar, though darker in colour. Produces fine burrs, and is 
used for ship and office fittings. 

Rata is another hard, red wood used in building railway, ship, and wheel- 
wrights' work. 

Black Maire, an olive tree, produces wood of a similar character, hard 
and durable, sometimes beautifully figured and suitable for cabinetwork. 

Red Birch {Fagus fused). — Really a beech, and said to be superior to all 
others. The wood is reddish brown, with lighter sap rings clearly defined but 
rays indistinct, tough, straight, and even grained and durable, easy to work, 
and takes good polish, produces wide boards and said to be a good wood for 
furniture construction. 

Puriri, or New Zealand Teak ( Vitex littoralzs). — Dark brown, yellow sap, 
very hard, heavy, and durable. Rings and rays indistinct. Used for ship- 
building, railway, and engineering work. 

White Pine {Podocarpus dacrydioides). — Yellowish white, similar to pale 
whitewood, rather hard and tough, brittle, works easily, sapwood wide, rings 
indistinct, rays visible, free from knots, liable to warp, not very durable ; 
suitable for cheap furniture and purposes similar to uses of white deal, but not 



35o MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

so strong. Yields wide planks and boards, sold at 3d. in the inch. Silver Pine, 
a white wood with a satiny surface, like good deal, and stronger and tougher 
than white pine, is sometimes mottled and used for cabinetwork. Although 
New Zealand timbers are not so well known at present, it is probable that 
rimu and honeysuckle may become popular as " furniture woods " before many 
years, especially as the supply of other hardwoods diminishes. 



Tasmania. 

Tasmania, like Australia, produces many species of the eucalyptus trees, 
commonly known as gum trees. Such are the " Swamp," " Red," " Blue," " Cider," 
" Weeping," and " White " Gums. Other eucalypti are the " Stringy " and " Iron 
Bark," and the Peppermint Tree. These are mostly hard, heavy, dense, and 
durable woods, in a few cases suitable for furniture, but mostly fit for railway, 
agricultural, and building purposes, or wood paving. Possible furniture woods 
are the Beech (Fagus CunningJiami), known as Myrtle, a greyish brown wood 
with a satiny surface and feathered figure. A pink variety is much prized for 
cabinetwork. A furniture wood known in England is the " Blackwood," or 
Acacia melanoxylon, the latter word meaning black wood. It resembles walnut, 
and in some varieties is beautifully figured, though it varies in colour. A similar 
wood with the same name comes from Australia. The " Black " and Silver 
" Wattles " are also acacias, the former a yellowish brown wood with a fine 
figure, and the latter, darker, harder, and heavier. Among the conifers the 
Huon Pine is the best known. The wood is almost a bright yellow with 
darker spots and wavy markings, but as it contains an oil which oxidises, the 
yellow turns to a "smoky brown" with age. It also has an unpleasant odour. 
The oil makes it almost rot proof. It is tough and heavy for pine, but easy to 
work, takes a good polish, and is suitable for panels and dados. A fine 
specimen can be seen at Kew. " Celery Top," " Oyster Bay," and " King 
William " are other pines, while Sassafras is also a light-coloured wood said 
to be good for carving and interior cabinetwork. The He and She Oaks are 
well-figured ornamental woods, and the "Native Cherry" and the "Musk" 
are used for furniture and joinery. The official handbook names fifty trees, 
specimens of which can be examined at the Kew Museum. Those named appear 
to be the chief cabinet woods, some of which are on the London market, viz., 
Huon pine, blackwood, and sassafras. 



Western Australia. - 

The timbers of this colony appear to be most' suitable for railway, engineer- 
ing, and agricultural purposes, and are confined largely to the products of the 
eucalyptus trees. Such are Jarrah, Karri, Blackbutt, Wandoo, Tuart, Red, White, 
and York Gums, all of which are hard, dense, strong, and durable timbers, well 
known as paving woods, but not yet acceptable as timbers in the furniture trade. 
Sandalwood is exported to the East, and many of the trees have been success- 
fully acclimatised in South Africa. 



Plate LI. 




China Cabinet made of Australian " Black Bean " exhibited in the 
Panelled Room illustrated on Plate LIL, page 351. 



[To face page 350. 




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ENGLISH, FOREIGN, AND COLONIAL WOODS V 351 



Victoria. 

In this State the principal timbers are also the product of eucalyptus trees. 
Red Iron, Bark, Blue Gum, Grey Box, Stringy Barks, Messmate, and 
Blackbutt are known for similar purposes to those already described. Black- 
wood (Acacia) is used for furniture, billiard tables, chairmaking, and general 
cabinetwork, as well as for railway and boat building. It is often well figured 
and mottled, is similar to the blackwood of Tasmania. Evergreen Beech is 
also used for furniture and is a good carver's wood, whilst Satin Box, Pencil- 
wood, and " Olive " are small trees supplying ornamental woods for veneers 
and turnery. 

New South Wales. 

New South Wales possesses a vast forest area which produces a great 
variety of trees, including many of the eucalyptus type, such as the Iron Barks, 
Stringy Barks, the Gums— White, Spotted, Grey, and Red— Blackbutt, 
Woolybutt, Tallow-wood, and White and Red " Mahogany," all of which, 
like similar trees in the sister colonies, are strong, hard, and durable timbers, 
used for paving, railway work, van building, and builder work generally. The 
colony also produces some interesting furniture woods, chief of which are the 
Black Bean, a dark brown wood rather like walnut but more strongly marked 
in the grain. Most suitable for heavy furniture and framed work as panelling ) 
dados, general joinery, and gun stocks. 

White Beech. — A yellowish or pinkish white wood similar in texture to 
English lime. It is moderately hard, close in grain, and even in texture, and is 
highly recommended for carvers. It shrinks but very little, and is also used 
for ordinary carpentry purposes- 

Silky Oak. — Lightish brown in colour with darker figure caused by the 
ray as in plane tree (lacewood). Quite suitable for small furniture. The Red 
Silky Oak is darker with a reddish tinge. 

Rosewood. — A dark reddish coloured wood, fragrant, and with a rich 
figure. Used as a substitute for Honduras mahogany in furniture and general 
cabinetmaking, and suitable for all indoor work and show cases. 

Spotted Gum is a pale yellowish brown wood with straight grain, tough, 
and bends well when cold. It is recommended for flooring, and builders' 
work, whilst its bending properties make it suitable for coach and carriage 
building. 

The room illustrated on Plate LI I., opposite, was exhibited at the 
Franco-British Exhibition by the New South Wales Government. It was 
designed by Mr Arnold Mitchell, F.R.I.B.A., and made by Messrs G. Trollope 
& Sons and Colls & Sons, Ltd., by whose kind permission the photographs are 
reproduced. The panelling and all the furniture and carving was made of 
New South Wales wood. The panelling of black bean, the carving of white 
beech, and the parquet flooring of spotted gum. The fine china cabinet on 
Plate LI., as well as the sideboard, tall-boy chest, and bureau, shown 



352 MODERN CABINETWORK, FURNITURE, AND FITMENTS 

in the room, were made of the black bean, whilst the small table and nest 
of tea tables shown opposite were constructed of silky oak. The octagon 
table and chairs, which looked like mahogany, were made of the rosewood. 
In all cases the woods were well chosen and suited the designs, the warm 
brown of the black bean being particularly successful in the panelling and 
larger furniture. The white beech is well spoken of by West End carvers, and 
there can be no doubt of the suitability of silky oak for small fancy things. The 
timbers were shipped by Messrs T. Gabriel & Sons, of Lambeth. 

The Red Bean. — A dark red wood, of a different natural order to black 
bean. Sometimes sold as bastard cedar. A good furniture wood with fine 
figure, takes good polish and looks well made up. 

Onion Wood (from its odour) is also a kind of bastard cedar, and is used 
for similar purposes. Myall {Acacia) is a dark violet-brown wood, intensely 
hard, heavy, figured, and fragrant. Used for turnery, chessmen, pipes, and fancy 
goods, and lately selected by the Ordnance Department for spokes of gun 
carriages. Varieties of myall are the Yarran, Brigalow, True and Bastard 
Myall. 

She Oaks {Casuarind). — These woods such as She, He, and Silky Oaks 
are not real oaks, and they vary in colour from red to light brown. The wood 
is generally hard and heavy and well figured. In veneers it is valuable for ship 
and cabinet work, and in the solid for tools, spokes, and turnery. Numerous 
local names are given to these woods, such as " Swamp," " Scrub," " Stunted," 
" Shingle," " Silvery," " Forest," and " Bull " Oak, as well as " Red Ash " and 
Beefwood. Other New South Wales woods are Tulipwood, resembling olive, and 
beautifully figured and largely used for cabinetwork ; Blackwood {Acacia) ; 
Muskwood, similar to bird's-eye maple ; Cudgerie, and Native Teak ; Blue- 
berry Ash, a whitish, tough wood, suitable for bedroom furniture ; Maiden's 
Blush, a rosy coloured wood which fades into brown when cut ; Saxifrage and 
Cork, or Coachwood, which is extremely valuable for coach and carriage 
building ; Moreton Bay Pine, the principal soft wood of New South Wales ; 
and Cypress Pine, a strong smelling, camphoraceous wood, somewhat like 
sandalwood, but possessing a fine showy figure in some varieties ; Red and 
White Honeysuckle, and Needlewood, used for pipes ; and Red Cedar, a real 
cedar which is said to be equal to mahogany for a furniture wood both in figure 
and texture, though softer. 



Queensland. 

Most of the Queensland timbers are also found in New South Wales, and 
are mentioned above. They are Spotted Gum, Grey Iron Back, Sassafras, 
Moreton Bay and Cypress Pine, Blue Gum, Yellowwood, and White Cedar. 

Flindosa is a very hard wood, and used as a substitute for beech. Bunya- 
bunya is a beautifully figured wood, said to be suitable for furniture ; and 
Bloodwood is another name for the rosewood referred to. 



w 

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ENGLISH, FOREIGN, AND COLONIAL WOODS 353 



South Africa. 

Stinkwood. — Also known as Cape Walnut. A dark brown, hard, close 
grained wood with a bright silky surface, but liable to warp ; used for cabinet- 
making and waggon work. When fresh cut has an unpleasant smell which is 
lost in seasoning. 

Sneezewood. — An extremely durable wood, equal in rank to greenheart. 
The smell of the dust causes sneezing, hence its name. Light reddish brown in 
colour, darkening with exposure. Used for furniture, bridges, and engineering. 

Yellowwood. — A light yellow, soft wood, even grain, but liable to warp, 
strong and elastic, used for furniture, &c. 

Kamassi. — Also known as Cape Box. Light yellow, hard, close grained, 
suitable for tools, and used for furniture. 

Saffronwood. — Reddish yellow in colour, close grain, hard and durable, 
fine figure, used for cabinetwork and waggon building. 

Cape Box, similar to ordinary boxwood, and Cape Cedar are both 
suitable for turnery and cabinetwork. Cape Ebony is a jet black, real ebony, 
and other cabinet woods are Rock Ash, Cape Ash, and Guar, a dark brown 
finely figured timber. The South African Ironwoods, black and white, are 
intensely hard, and similar to lignum vitae. 

Canadian, Gold Coast, and Nigerian timbers are described in the 
Mahoganies, Oaks, and Pines, &c. 



India. 

Some very useful and well-figured timbers suitable for woodwork and 
furniture are now (1922) being imported from India. A good selection may 
be inspected at Messrs Howard's yard, Stanhope Street, W. The following 
are a few of the best known : — 

Silver Grey Wood. — Varies from a uniform grey with a tinge of green 
in it, to darker figured wood. Works up well and the " grey " is quite permanent. 

Laurel Wood. — Very like Italian walnut, but varies considerably in figure 
and colour. Makes excellent panelling. 

Padauk. — The Andaman wood is a rich red with fine figure. The Burma 
variety is duller in colour. 

Haldu. — A dark satinwood colour, said to be suitable for chair work. 

White Mahogany. — A light coloured wood suitable for interior parts : a 
substitute for Whitewood. 

Other woods are Koko, Gurgan, Pyenkado, Pyinma, and White Bombwe. 

Books of reference on Timbers are included in the list at the end of the 
book. 

23 



GLOSSARY 



Abacus. — The uppermost member of the capital of a column supporting the architrave and 

entablature. 
Acanthus. — A leaf ornament based upon the foliage of the Acanthus spinosa, and used upon 

the capitals, friezes, and cornices of the Corinthian and Composite orders of architecture. 
ACORN TURNING. — A term applied to turned ornaments resembling the acorn, and largely 

used in Jacobean work, chiefly on the backs of chairs. 
Annulets. —Encircling bands or fillets upon the lower part of the Doric capital. 
Anthemion. — A Greek ornament based upon the foliage of the chamomile. 
APRON Piece.— A term sometimes applied to wide curved rails in furniture, which are fixed 

at a less height than 3 ft. from the floor line. 
Archimedean. — Based upon the principles of Archimede's screw, as in an Archimedean drill 

which is operated with a spiral thread. 
Architrave. — The bottom member of the cornice or entablature in architecture ; also a 

moulding surrounding a door or window opening. 
Armoire. — From the French, an old press or wardrobe. See p. 3. 
Arris. — The sharp edge or line formed by two plain surfaces in any material. 
Astragal. — A half-round moulding worked on the edge ; it is known as a bead. 
AUGER. — An instrument for boring holes. Usually made with a long stem, and operated with 

a wooden handle fixed at right angles. 
Aumbry. — A recess or small cupboard in a wall, sometimes called " Aumrie." 



B 

BADGER.— A term applied to a wide rebate plane ; length about 18 in., with an iron 2 in. in 

width, and upwards. Made with a skew mouth, and used for wide rebate and sunk bevels. 

See p. 8. 
BALK. — A roughly squared log of timber. Cuba mahogany is imported in this form. 
Baltic Timber. — The term "Baltic" embraces all kinds of timber shipped from ports on 

the Baltic Sea, including Russian, Prussian, Polish, Swedish, and Norwegian shipments. 
BALUSTER.— A small pillar or shaped upright used to support handrailing. 
Baluster Turning.— Characteristic of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods. An example 

of the former type is illustrated on p. 282. 
Balustrade. — A row of turned pillars supporting a rail. 
Banding. — A strip or band of veneer in a panel or round a drawer front, as in " cross " or 

straight banding. 
Banister.— A corruption of the term " Baluster." The name is also given to the uprights in 

a chair back. 
Barefaced Tenon.— A tenon shouldered on one side only. 

355 



356 GLOSSARY 

Barefaced Tongue.— Similar to the above. 

Barred Door. — A framed-up door with traceried patterns made up with mouldings and 

"slats" called "bars." Introduced during the Chippendale and Sheraton periods. 
Base. — The bottom of an object, such as the base moulding of a column ; also the plinth in 

carcase work. 
Basil. — The angle to which the cutting edge of a plane, iron, or chisel is ground. 
Bay. — Applied to windows, the term indicates a projection from the wall, forming a recess in 

the room. See also Oriel Window. 
Bead. — A small semicircular moulding, one of the group of nine classical mouldings. See 

Astragal. 
Bead and Butt. — A term applied to the finish of flush panels in framing. The sides of panels 

are separated from the stiles or muntings with a "bead," and the ends butt against the 

rails ; also applied to drawer slips. See p. 82. 
Bead and Flush. — When the bead is worked and let in all round the panel. 
Bead and Reel. — Ornamental turning resembling these objects strung together alternately, 

and frequently fixed in an angle or corner. 
BEAM Compass. — An instrument consisting of a long rod or lath with two sliding heads 

attached, one fitted with a point, and the other with a pencil. It is used for describing 

large circles or arcs. 
BEARER. — The drawer rail in a carcase or table, bearing the drawer. 

Bed MOULDING. — Any moulding placed under a "corona" or "drip" moulding of a cornice. 
Bed Post. — The legs of a bedstead, also applied to turned shafts or pillars supporting the 

canopy of a bedstead, see p. 188. Characteristic of Chippendale, Elizabethan, and 

Hepplewhite four-poster bedsteads, which were often reeded and carved. 
Bedstead Bolt. — An iron bolt and nut used for connecting the side rails of French wooden 

bedsteads to the posts. See p. 186. 
BELLY. — The protruding portion of a piece of work, also "bellied" ; applied to panelling that 

has buckled owing to dampness. 
Bench End. — The upright end to a pew or church seat. 
Bevel. — A kind of chamfer ; also an adjustable tool similar to a square, used for marking out 

" bevelled " work. 
Bezel. — The metal ring surrounding a clock face glass, usually hinged. 
Bidet. — A small stand fitted with a pan for bedroom use. 
Bird's-Beak Lock.— Used on piano falls, cylinder tables, and tambours, the bolt, when thrust 

out, resembling a bird's beak. 
Block Plane.— An iron plane, with an exceptionally low pitch to the iron, especially intended 

for use upon a mitre block, and also with a shooting board. 
Block Saw. — For use upon a mitre block. See pp. 68 and 295. 
Bodying In. — A term applied to a process in French polishing executed before the finishing 

stage ; literally, filling in the grain of the wood. 
Bolection. — A rebated moulding, fitting over the edges of parts of framing, and raised 

above the surface. 
Bole. — The trunk or stem of a tree. 
Bombe. — A convex or arched surface, a feature in the construction of tables and commodes in 

the Louis XV. period. 
Boss. — A projecting ornament used at the intersection of angles in the mouldings of a ceiling. 
Bottle Turning. — A detail of Dutch origin, so-called because of its resemblance to a bottle. 

A characteristic of the William and Mary period. 
Bracket Cornice. — A feature of the Elizabethan, Jacobean, and French Francois I. and 

Louis XIV. periods, consisting of a cornice moulding, supported by brackets fixed to the 

frieze part. 
Branch WOOD. — An inferior quality timber, not generally used for cabinet and joinery work 

owing to its extreme tendency to twist. 
BRASS FOIL. — A Dutch production, consisting of thin sheet brass beaten out to a foil thickness. 
Break. — The projection on a cornice, carcase, or plinth when it stands forward or when the 

line is broken. 



GLOSSARY 357 

Bridle. — A woodwork joint, an open tenon. See chapter on "Joints." 

Buffet. — A sideboard or cupboard for the display of china, plate, &c. A French term. 

Buhl or Boule Work. — A style of decoration comprising inlays of brass, tortoise-shell, ivory, 

silver, &c, invented by Andre Charles Boule. See chapter on " Veneering." 
BULBOUS. — A knobby or protuberant style of turnery of Dutch origin, and characteristic of 

turned work executed in the Queen Anne period. 
Bulkhead. — A division or partition in shipvvork, the sides of a cabin or saloon. 
Bull-Nose. — A small plane with the mouth fixed close to the fore part of the stock. Used for 

planing close up to a projecting part. 
Bureau (plural Bureaux).— A writing desk or chest for holding papers. See p. 146. 
BURR. — A growth or excrescence on the bole of a tree ; also the arris or cutting edge of a scraper, 

chisel, &c. 
BUSH. — A lined metal collar or connection. 
Butt Hinge. — Used for hanging doors. See p. 260. 
Butt Joint. — A joint between the end grains of two pieces of timber when there is no shoulder. 

See p. 47. 



Cabinet. — Originally a small room, a private room for consultations, but now applied to a 

form of cupboard enclosed by doors, and used for the display of china, plate, &c. 
Cabin Hook. — A small hook and eye, chiefly used in cabin doors, and also applied to flaps and 

doors in cabinet and joinery work. 
Cabriole.— A name given to a curved leg with a projecting knee part, curved shaft, and shaped 

toe, originating in legs resembling animal forms. Largely used during the Queen Anne 

and Chippendale periods. See p. 321. 
Camber.— The convexity of a surface or arch. The convex deck line from port to starboard 

in shipwork. 
Camp Bedstead. — Portable, consisting of a light framework, with legs folding underneath 

when closed. 
Candle Board. — A characteristic of Sheraton work, consisting of a small ledge or shelf fitting 

underneath a table top, for the reception of a candlestick. Now almost obsolete. 
Canopy. — A fixture over a throne or bedstead ; also an ornamental Gothic projection over an 

arch, niche, or doorway, &c. 
CANT. — An inclination or form of chamfer, as " canted " or bevelled edge. 
Canteen. — A case containing cutlery and table accessories. 

Canterbury. — A seat with a " well " to contain music, made specially for use at the piano. 
Capital.— The carved or moulded projecting member at the head of a shaft or column ; also 

called "Cap" (an abbreviation) and formerly chapiter. 
CARCASE. — The body part of a box-like piece of furniture, without ornament or doors and 

fittings. See Wardrobe carcase on p. 75; also "Wing" carcase, occurring in large 

furniture, and placed at the side of the main carcase, and "bottom" carcase, as in the 

bottom part of a bookcase or tall-boy chest of drawers. 
Carcase Work. — Pertaining to carcases as distinguished from tablework, z.e., framed-up rails 

and legs. 
Card Table.— Specially designed for card playing. See illustrations on p. 133. 
Cartoon Paper. — Large-sized roll paper intended for full-size drawings and fresco designs. 
CARTOUCHE. — A form of ornament resembling a tablet or scroll unrolled— a feature of the 

French Francois I. style of decoration. 
Caryatide.— A conventional female figure supporting an architectural arch or entablature. 
Casement. — A French form of window, hinged and opening outwards, either singly or in 

pairs. 
Casement Stays. — A pivoted and drilled bar attached to sill and casement to fix the window 
when adjusted to the desired angle of opening. 



358 GLOSSARY 

Cast. — The term applied to timber means twisted, and is generally used with reference to 

lengthwise twisting. 
Caul. — A piece of wood or zinc plate used to impart the necessary heat and to distribute the 

pressure obtained by clamps and hand-screws evenly over the veneer surface. See chapter 

on " Veneering." 
Cavetto. — One of the classic mouldings generally described as, and synonymous with, 

" Hollow." 
Cellaret. — A deep drawer or tray in a sideboard for bottles. 
Celluloid. — A chemically formed substitute for ivory, obtainable in thin sheets for marquetry, 

and also in lines for inlaying. It consists of gun-cotton and camphor, and is highly 

inflammable. 
Chasing. — A decorative finish applied to metal mounts, effected by incising patterns. 
Check. — A northern term identical with " Rebate." 
Chequer. — Decoration in the form of squares, differently shaded or coloured alternately, as in 

a draught-board. 
Chest. — See Chapter I. 

Chesterfield. — The name given to a stuffed-over couch with double ends. 
Cheval Glass. — A large glass or mirror swinging between framed-up supports. 
Cinquefoil. — Gothic foliation having five cusps or foils. See p. 240. 
Clamp. — To fix or render firm, to prevent wood from casting ; also mortise and tenon clamping, 

mitred clamping, and dowelled clamping ; tee iron clamps used for strengthening wide 

panels, and also to prevent them buckling. See chapter on " Joints." 
Clash. — The figure in oak ; the other words used are " felt " and " silver grain." 
CLASSICAL. — Applied to the Greek and Roman orders of architecture. 
Claw AND BALL. — A carved detail of ancient origin, resembling a bird's claw clasped round a 

ball ; a characteristic detail at the bottom of Queen Anne and Georgian legs. See p. 322. 
Cleat. — A form of clamp, a batten nailed on to carpentry and joinery work for strengthening 

purposes. 
Cleft. — Meaning "split," stronger than sawn or "cut" stuff, and used for hand-screws, &c. 
CLUB Foot. — Used in early Queen Anne and Chippendale work, usually in conjunction with a 

straight type of "cabriole" leg. 
Clustered Columns. — A Gothic detail, consisting of columns placed together in clusters of 

three and upwards, extensively used in the Chippendale period. 
Cocked Bead. — Semicircular and projecting beyond an edge or surface, used round drawers, 

especially in work of the eighteenth century makers ; when sunk below the surface, the term 

"sunk bead" is used, and when separated by a narrow sunk fillet or bead, it is called a 

"quirked" bead. A Staff Bead is worked upon the edge of angles, and it is also termed 

a " return " bead. See chapter on " Mouldings." 
Colonial Georgian. — A style of furniture and decoration based upon the work of British 

settlers in the United States, and having an eighteenth century influence. 
Commode. — A small cabinet or pedestal fitted with pan for bedroom use. The name was also 

given to a chest of drawers. 
Compass Plane. — A plane with a curved or flexible sole to fit circular forms and curved 

shapes. 
COMPO. — An abbreviation of the term " composition," a substitute for wood carving ; also called 

"stucco," introduced into English interior decoration by the brothers R. and J. Adam. The 

chief constituents are whiting, glue, and resin ; the patterns are cast from a mould carved in 

hard wood. 
Composite. — The fifth order of architecture, a combination of Ionic and Corinthian. 
Concave. — A hollow curved line or surface. 
Confidante.— A sofa with seats at each end. 

CONIFEROUS. — A term applied to cone-bearing trees, such as the fir, cypress, pine, and yew. 
Console. — A large projecting bracket, usually of a scroll form, applied indiscriminately in 

furniture to "console" or bracket support tables and to large brackets under beams, &c. 
CONTOUR. — The profile or section of a moulding. 
CONVOLUTE. — Material rolled in the form of a scroll. 



GLOSSARY 359 

Coopered Joints. — They are used in curved work, and resemble those made by coopers in 

barrels and tubs. 
CORE. — An internal mould used for castings ; the term is also frequently applied to internal 

parts of furniture, such as the inside of a pillar ; also to remove the core, i.e., waste material 

between saw cuts in grooves and housed joints and in mortises. 
Corinthian. — The third order of Grecian architecture which possesses the most elaborate 

capital. 
Cork Rubber. — A flat piece of cork about 4 in. by 25 in. by 1 in., used with glass-paper 

for finishing work. Cork carpet glued to a piece of wood answers the same purpose. 

Rubbers are also shaped to fit the contour of mouldings, &c. 
Cornice. — The crowning or finishing part of a capital or column, the top member of an 

entablature, or the projecting connection between the wall and ceiling of the room. See 

also Bracket Cornice. 
Corona. — One of the classic mouldings, usually a large flat projection in a cornice moulding. 

Also called a " drip " moulding, from the original use of this member, i.e., in preventing 

"capillary attraction"; this was effected by throating or undercutting the projection 

(see p. 274), and rain water then could not "soak" under the "soffit." 
Countersink. — A tool to form a conical depression or cavity in a piece of wood or metal to 

receive a screw head. 
Court Cupboard. — An Elizabethan form of cabinet ; a chest on legs with a recessed cup- 
board above. 
Cove. — A large hollow. This term usually refers to rooms ; applied to furniture, it denotes a 

large hollow cornice, and is also synonymous with "niche," a curved recess which often 

contains a statuette. 
Cramp. — An iron or wooden instrument serving to force or bring together joints in woodwork. 

For chair-maker's cramp, see p. 316. 
Credence. — A Gothic name for a side or re-table. 
Curl. — An arrangement of natural figure in the grain of wood, in the form of a feather, cut at 

the intersection of a large bough with the tree trunk. See chapter on "Veneering." 
Curtain Piece. — Refers to shaped rails, properly called " span rails," when placed above the 

eye-line. 
CUSP. — A Gothic ornamental detail, consisting of a point or knob which is frequently carved, 

projecting from the intersection of two curves, a feature of trefoiled, quatrefoiled, and 

cinquefoiled arches. See p. 241. 
Cylinder. — In furniture this term is applied to the /'fall" of a writing table in the shape of a 

quadrant or arc of a circle. 
Cyma Recta. — (Cyma=a wave.) A classic moulding commonly termed an "ogee" moulding. 

See p. 273. 
Cyma Reversa. — One of the classic mouldings, meaning a "reversed ogee" moulding. See 

P- 273- 



D 

Dado.— Dadoing, consisting of a decorated portion of a wall ; also the wooden framing fixed 

round a room up to about 5 ft. high. 
Dais. — The raised portion of the floor at the end of a large dining-room or hall, of ancient 

usage, and upon which the " high table " was placed. 
Deeping. — This refers to machine saw-cuts through the deepest part of a plant. See also 

P- 332. 
Dentils. — An ornamental detail, consisting of small rectangular blocks with spaces between 

them, usually placed in a cornice moulding, and probably originating from the projecting 

ends of horizontal roof timbers ; also used in inlaid work, the pattern being made with 

veneers of contrasting colours. 
DESICCATING. — Drying timber in a hot-air chamber. See chapter on "Timber." 



360 GLOSSARY 

Diagonal. — A line joining two not adjacent angles in a four or more sided figure ; thus the 

cross rails in a rectangular table, called " diagonal rails." 
Diameter. — A line through the centre of a circle or cylindrical object. 
Diaper.— A regular and systematic decorative arrangement of a repeating pattern in marquetry, 

inlay, painting, gesso, woven materials, and low relief carving, much used in the decorative 

marquetry treatment of Louis XVI. furniture. 
DOG-TOOTH. — An ornamental detail characteristic of Early English work, consisting of a small 

pyramidal repeat ornament, used chiefly as a member in mouldings. 
Dolphin Hinge. — So called because of its resemblance to the creature of that name, used in 

conjunction with quadrant stays to secretaires. See chapter on " Brasswork." 
Donkey. — A marquetry cutter's implement. See illustration on p. 221. 
Donkey Ear Shoot. — See p. 68. 

Doric. — The first order of Grecian architecture, from the Dorian r ace in Ancient Greece. 
Dovetail. — A joint so named because of its resemblance to the tail of a dove. See examples 

on Plate IX. 
Dowel Plate. — An iron plate about k in. thick, used to reduce dowels to any required 

diameter. See also p. 65. 
Draughtsman. — One who prepares plans and drawings. See also chapter on " Foremen's 

Work." 
Drawer Lock Chisel. — An instrument used chiefly for making small mortises in confined 

positions, generally in connection with the bolts of drawer locks. 
Drawer Slip. — The grooved slip or strip to take the drawer bottom. 
Drift. — The direction taken by a saw away from the right line when improperly set ; also the 

slanting direction of a nail when badly driven. 
Drip Moulding. — See Corona. 
Drop Ornament. — A split turned ornament used in Jacobean wood and stone work ; also a 

decorative detail resembling a "husk" used in eighteenth century decoration. 
DUMB Waiter.— A form of dinner waggon, illustrated in chapter on " Miscellaneous Furniture." 
DUST Board. — A horizontal division between drawers, introduced to prevent tampering with 

their contents, and also as a preventive against dust deposits. 



Ebeniste. — A French term for cabinetmaker. 

Ebenisterie. — French for cabinetwork. 

Ebonise. — To impart to wood by means of staining and polishing a finish resembling the real 

ebony wood. 
ECHINUS. — A Grecian moulding with carved eggs and darts as a decorative feature. 
EDGE ROLL. — A Gothic moulding detail, somewhat resembling a "staff bead." 
Edging. — The small solid square let in on the edge of a top when the face is veneered, as 

a protection to the veneer. 
EGG and Tongue Moulding. — Used largely in architectural mouldings of a classical 

character ; also used in Georgian furniture and decoration. 
Elizabethan. — Relating to the Renaissance style of architecture and woodwork prevailing 

during the reign of Queen Elizabeth. See also p. 251. 
Ellipse. — An oval figure produced by cutting a cone right across in a direction not parallel to 

the base without touching the base. See Oval. 
Empire. — A French style of decoration based upon ancient Grecian and Egyptian forms and 

details. "English Empire" style, a term occasionally heard, is also an interpretation of 

Greek forms. 
Enamel. — A finish for furniture prepared by coating the wood with whiting and size ; this is 

rubbed down level and then finished off with a transparent French polish ; also a fusible 

substance of the nature of glass, usually nearly opaque occasionally used in the decoration 

of furniture mounts. 



GLOSSARY 361 

Endive Scroll.— A detail in carving belonging to the Louis XIV. and XV. styles and also the 

Chippendale period, the detail being derived from a species of leaf. 
Endogenous.— See chapter on "Timber." 
Engraving. — A term applied to the decoration of marquetry, by which a "relief" effect is 

produced by engraving fine lines on the veneers, the lines afterwards rubbed with a black 

composition to render them visible. 
Enrichment. — A term applied to ornamental detail, usually in a continuous run such as 

an " enriched " moulding, &c, meaning decorated with carving, inlaying, or painting. 
Entablature. — An architectural term applied to the members above the column, composed 

of frieze or architrave moulding and cornice moulding. Used with reference to furniture 

the term is synonymous with a " cornice." 
Entasis.— The swell or slight curve in a "column" to correct the hollow effect caused by 

an optical illusion if quite straight. 
Escritoire.— A writing desk or bureau. 
ESCUTCHEON. — A heraldic term, meaning a shield charged with armorial bearings or bearing 

other devices; also a brass fitting for a keyhole, such as "rim escutcheon," "overlay 

escutcheon," and " inlaid escutcheon " cut from mother of pearl, ivory, veneer, or metal. 
Etagere. — A French name given to a series of shelves supported by columns. Similar to a 

" What Not." 
Exogenous. — See chapter on "Timber." 
Exterior Angle.— A projecting or "salient" angle. 
Extrados. — The outside curve of an arch. 



Facade. — The front view or elevation of a building. 

Face Mark. — A mark to indicate the prepared and tested face of a piece of wood. 

Facing. — Applied to furniture construction it means a thin covering of wood upon a ground- 
work, used for economical reasons, such as a white wood drawer rail " faced up " with Cuba 
mahogany. 

Faience. — A general term applied to glazed pottery and porcelain. 

Faldstool. — A portable folding seat similar to a camp stool. 

Fall. — The term applied to the falling fronts of bureaux, secretaires, writing desks, and pianos. 

Fascia. — One of the classic mouldings, consisting of a broad fillet or band, a member of a 
moulding ; also a name-plate or board above a shop front. 

Faulty.— Shaky, unsound, applied to timber. 

Faun. — A legendary demi-god, represented by a half goat and half man, used largely as a 
decorative detail in work of the Adam period. 

Favas. — Diaper detail, resembling the cells in a honeycomb. Used in Louis XVI. decoration. 

Feather Edge. — Planing off to a point or fine edge, feathering. 

Festoon. — A decoration in the form of a wreath or garland, or flowers arranged in a curved 
form. 

Fiddle Back. — Is applied to figured veneer, resembling the finely marked sycamore used in 
violin backs. 

Fiddle Board. — A term used in shipwork to designate a board cut out to receive the stems 
of glasses. 

Filigree. — Ornamental work done in gold or silver wire. 

Fillet. — A small "slip" or ledge used for supporting shelves ; also a classic moulding, con- 
sisting of a small "band " or " fascia," used as a connecting member. 

Finger Joint. — Composed of five tongues or fingers interlocking, used on table brackets. 
See p. 52. 

Finial. — This term was originally applied to a foliated knob at the extremity of a Gothic 
pinnacle ; it is, however, also used to denote a " finishing point," such as the carving above 
a newel post. 



362 CxLOSSARY 

FlSH SKIN. — A material prepared from fish skin, usually dressed and dyed to a delicate green 

colour. Used for covering caskets and clock cases, and especially suitable in combination 

with silver mounts and fittings. The surface presents a coarse " egg shell" appearance. 
Fitment.— Any article made and fixed to a wall or room, including panelling, chimney-pieces, 

and " fitted furniture." 
Fitting up. — The final process of finishing a piece of furniture after it is polished, consisting 

of fixing fittings, glass, <\x. 
Felt.— See Clash. 

Fence. — A piece of wood fixed on a plane as a guide in planing or grooving. 
FIELDED. — Applied to a panel which is moulded, sunk, or raised, or broken up into smaller 

panels. 
Fixative. — A preparation of white shellac and methylated spirit or spirits of wine, used for 

" fixing " or rendering permanent pencil sketches and charcoal drawings, and applied by 

means of a spray. 
Flash. — A timber term denoting large patches or "flashes" of brightly shaded figure. 
Flatting. — A process connected with " veneering," necessary when using buckled veneers. 

See p. 215. Also saw-cutting through the thickness of planks, called "flatting." 
Fleur-de-Lis. — The royal insignia of France, supposed to represent a lily or iris. 
Float. — An instrument resembling a file. The cutting action is caused by a series of saw-like 

serrations. See p. 64. 
FLUSH. — Signifies level or even with an adjoining surface 
Fluting. — A decorative detail, consisting of a series of semicircular furrows or channels 

round a column, shaft, or leg, or on a pilaster or frieze. 
Fly Rail. — Side rail of a flap table, which opens to support the flap. 
FOIL. — Denotes the point formed by the intersection of two circular arcs ; a Gothic detail 

used in the " trefoil," " quatrefoil," "cinquefoil," &c. 
Foliated. — Pertaining to the use of "foils" ; decorated ornaments enriched with leaves. 
Framed Work. — Indicating work " framed " together ; also " grounds " for fixing. See p. 279. 
Francois Premier.— A French style of furniture of the time of Francis I., noted for its 

delicate work and "cartouche" carving. 
Fresco. — A term applied to the al fresco painting upon a wet ground ; generally employed 

upon walls or ceilings. 
Fret. — A geometric detail largely used in the Chinese and Chippendale styles, formed by 

cutting or piercing thin wood or metal ; also " Fretwork," and " Fretting." 
Frieze. — That part of a "cornice" or entablature between the frieze or "architrave" moulding 

and the cornice moulding. 



Gadroon. — A form of "nulling" decoration characteristic of Elizabethan and Jacobean 

woodwork, resembling large reeds or inverted flutes on friezes and turning. 
GALLERY. — A decorated wood or metal ledge round a table top or case. 
GEORGIAN. — Pertaining to work executed during the reigns of the Georges, a period reaching 

from 1 7 14 to 1820, but usually applied to the earlier years ; other styles being in vogue 

after about the middle of the eighteenth century. See p. 252. 
Girandole. — A carved chandelier or wall candle bracket, a feature of the eighteenth century 

interior decoration. 
GOBELINS.— A name given to the tapestry made in France ; after Jean Gobelin, who introduced 

it into that country in the fifteenth century. 
GOTHIC. — A term used to describe the architecture and woodwork of the Middle Ages 

following on the Romanesque period ; it may be subdivided into styles as follows : twelfth 

century ; thirteenth century, Early English or Lancet ; fourteenth century, Decorated ; 

and fifteenth century, Perpendicular. 
GRIP'FIN. — A legendary animal, composed of a lion's body and an eagle's head and wings ; 

largely used in carvings belonging to the French and Italian Renaissance. 



GLOSSARY 363 

Groin or Groining. — The line or rib made by or applied to the intersecting of surfaces of a 

vaulted roof. 
GROUND.— The rough framing fixed to brickwork previous to fixing a fitment or panelling ; also 

the core or " groundwork " of veneered objects. 
Grounding Out. — A process connected with carved work. The outline is cut down with 

gauges, and the surplus wood removed, leaving the design projecting above the " ground " 

or " groundwork." 
Grotesque. — A term usually applied to monstrous or comic figures or heads, used as 

ornament in wood or stone work. 
Guilloche. — A type of ornament composed of curved and interlacing lines, usually composing 

circular forms. It may be in one or more rows. 



H 

Hanging Stile. — The stile of a door upon which the hinges or pivots are fixed. 
Harlequin. — An automatic table, invented by Sheraton, the centre part rising when flaps are 

raised. 
Hatching. — Diagonal lines to show a section, which has been reduced in width. 
Haunch. — The projecting part of a tenon. 
Head. — The upper member or rail of a door, also the top part of framing. As in " semi-head," 

indicating a " semicircular" head. 
Herring Boning. — A veneered detail of Queen Anne work, consisting of two narrow bands 

of striped veneer, cut obliquely and placed together, resembling herring-bone patterns in 

half-timbered work. 
Hone. — A stone of very fine grit, used for sharpening instruments and tools. 
Hook Joint. — A dust-proof joint for doors of show-cases. See p. 302. 
Hopper. — A kind of trough, diminished towards the bottom, used by millers, &c. The term is 

generally applied to cabinet and joinery work which resembles a " hopper." 
HOUSING. — The process of recessing or grooving one piece of wood into another ; also 

diminished housing and " stopped housing." See chapter on "Joints," pp. 43, 44. 
HUSKS. — A form of drop ornament used on eighteenth century work. See pier table top, 

p. 131, and piano, Plate XXXVI. 
Hutch. — See Chest. 



Impost. — The capital of a column or pilaster which marks the springing of an arch ; also the 

part of a pillar upon which arches rest. 
Incised Ornament. — Meaning to cut in or engrave ; a feature of some sixteenth century 

cabinetwork, the incessions being afterwards filled in with a coloured composition. 
Ingle Nook. — A recessed chimney-piece with seats on either side. 
Inlaying. — A general term applied to a decorative process, in which lines, strings, and bands 

or flowers are grooved or cut into a groundwork. See p. 222. Refer also to Intarsia 

and Marquetry. 
Intarsia. — Meaning to insert or to inlay. A general term applied to inlaid decorative work 

where the design is cut out and fitted into corresponding cavities in a ground, whereas 

" Marquetry " is cut through several thicknesses of veneer and built up into a sheet before 

glueing to the groundwork. 
In the White. — A trade term applied to cabinetwork in any wood before it is polished. 
INTRADOS. — The under or inside of a curved arch. 

IONIC. —The second order of Grecian architecture, the name derived from Ionia in Greece. 
Isometric Projection. — See p. 32. 
Ivory Black.— Made from charred bones or ivory ; a black substance used for staining. 



364 GLOSSARY 



JACOBEAN. — The style of woodwork immediately following the Elizabethan period, from 
James I., 1603. Applied to work of early Renaissance type. 

Jamb. — The side of a wall opening. The upright portion of a fireplace. 

Japanning. — See Lacquer. 

Jardiniere. — A box or pedestal specially designed to take flowers. See p. 173. 

JIGGER. — A light treadle fret saw, used for frets and general shape cutting. 

Joint Stool. — Belonging to early Tudor times. See Chair Chart, Plate L. 

Joyner. — The original term applied to mediaeval craftsmen before the separation into " cabinet- 
maker," one who made furniture, and "joiner," whose work was restricted to that of a 
fixed or architectural character. See Chapter I. 



K 

Kerf. — The cut made by a saw. 

Keying. — A method of strengthening mitre joints, Sec. Illustrated on p. 45. 

Keystone. — A wedge-shaped stone placed at the centre of an arch, serving to bind it 

together ; a detail imitating this form was occasionally used in Elizabethan woodwork. 
Kidney Table. — Resembling a kidney shape in plan, introduced by Sheraton in pedestal 

writing tables. Seep. 11 1. 
Knee-Part. — The upper portion of a leg into which the rails tenoned. 
Knuckle Joint. — Resembling a finger joint. See p. 52. 



Lacquer. — Also the French term " Lacque," resembling japanning ; applied to furniture, it 
refers to Japanese lacquer work and the French Vernis Martin process, used chiefly in com- 
modes and cabinets of the Louis XV. and Chippendale periods. 

Ladder Back. — A term applied in the late seventeenth century to chair backs, the slats or 
rails of which resemble the rungs of a ladder. Chippendale also used them. 

Lambrequin. — The centre piece of drapery in a valance. 

Laminate. — To build up in layers ; also known as "three-ply," "five-ply," &c. 

Lancet. — A pointed arch of thirteenth century Gothic. See Gothic. 

Landscape Panel. — A panel placed with the grain horizontal. 

Lattice. — Resembling network. "Lattice Back" refers to a Sheraton chair. See p. 313. 
He also used brass lattice work in bookcase doors, with pleated silk behind. Also " Lattice 
Pattern," inlay work of the Louis XVI. period. 

Lectern. — An ecclesiastical reading-desk, usually made of wood, and also in brass and stone. 

Linen-Fold Panels.— A Tudor detail. See examples on p. 287. 

Lining up.— A term synonymous with thickening up ; a moulded frame screwed underneath a 
top to strengthen it, and also to increase the thickness. 

LlSTEL. — An alternative term for " fillet," a flat moulding member. See Fillet. 

Livery Cupboard. — A name given to cupboards in which bread was kept for distribution to 
the poor. There are some still in use in St Albans Abbey. 

Locking Stile. — That stile of a door upon which the lock is fixed ; also called in the case of 
double doors a "meeting stile." 

LOOSE Seat. — A stuffed frame let into the framing of a chair but not fixed. 

Loo Tables. — Oval tables made for the old game of loo. 

Loper. — The "sliders" supporting a bureau fall, and also the "sliders" of an extending 
dining-table. 



GLOSSARY 365 

LOTUS. — Egyptian decorative detail resembling a water-flower. 

Louvred Light. — A frame with bevelled slats, designed for ventilation purposes, and used in 

shipwork, &c. 
Low Relief. — Applied to "carving" or "gesso work," the ornamental detail of which does 

not project far from the groundwork, as, for instance, carved panel centres and ceiling 

decorations of the "Adam" period. 
LOZENGE. — Resembling a "diamond shape," a feature of Elizabethan work in overlays, and in 

" lozenge shaped ' panels of "Adam" period. 
LUNETTE. — A crescent or semicircular space or window. 



M 

Mantelpiece. — The shelf above a fireplace. 

Marquetry. — A form of inlaid work. See chapter on " Veneering," pp. 209 et scq. See also 

Intarsia and Inlaying. 
Medallion. — A plaque or medal, with figures or heads in low relief, a classic detail largely 

used by the brothers R. and J. Adam. 
Mitre. — The intersection of a moulding ; an angle of 45 degrees equals a "right mitre." 
Mitre Block. — A tool used for planing mitres (see p. 17); also " Mitre Shooting Board" 

(see p. 68), and " Mitre Cut" (see p. 67), a prepared block for cutting the mitre angles. 
MODILLIONS. — Enriched brackets placed under the cornice in the Corinthian and Composite 

styles of architecture; also a term applied to small brackets used as "dentils" under a 

cornice moulding. 
MODULE. — The tenth part of the semi-diameter of a column in Classic architecture, forming a 

unit of measure by which other proportions are decided. 
Mortise. — A cavity cut into a piece of timber to receive a projection upon another piece called 

a " tenon." 
Mosaic. — Decoration composed of very small pieces of wood or stone ; in woodwork also 

known as " Tonbridge ware " and mosaic bandings. 
MOTHER-OF- Pearl. — The hard and brilliantly coloured internal layer of shells, chiefly those of 

pearl oysters. " Japanese " and " Blue Pearl " are similar substances characterised by richer 

markings and colour. 
Mottled. — Meaning a speckled or variegated grain in veneer, giving a spotty effect. 
v Moulding. — A projecting band shaped in section, used to break the continuity of surfaces, and 

for decorative effect. See pp. 273, 274. 
Mount. — A general term applied to metalwork or " ormolu," used for decorating furniture ; 

sometimes finely sculptured and chased, as in historical French furniture. 
Mullet. — A grooved piece of wood used for testing panel edges and drawer bottoms. 
Munting or Mullion. — The inside vertical divisions of doors and framing. 



N 

Necking. — Any small band or moulding near the top of a shaft or column. 

Needle Point. — The pointed end of a needle, used for fixing light and delicate overlays and 

mouldings. 
Newel. — A large post supporting a handrail. 

Niche. — A semicircular recess in a wall or cabinet to receive a bust or statuette. 
Nested Tables. — See chapter on "Tables," p. 121. 
Nulling. — Turned or carved detail, quadrant shaped in section, used on friezes and mouldings 

in Jacobean work. 



366 GLOSSARY 

O 

Oblique Projection. — A method of graphically presenting an object in three dimensions, 

viz., height, breadth, and thickness. See p. 32. 
Ogee. — A waved moulding, Classic term " Cyma Recta." A "broken ogee" consists of an 

"ogee" moulding with the continuity of its sections broken by a square or "fillet." See 

P- 273- 
Old Woman's Tooth. — A tool with a projecting tooth or iron ; a router. See p. 9. 
Oriel. — A projecting window, frequently semi-octagonal in shape, and supported by corbels 

not going right down to the ground ; first used as a Gothic feature. 
Ormolu. — A composition of brass and zinc made to resemble gold, the material chiefly used 

for casting furniture mounts ; often richly chased and " water gilt." 
Ottoman. — A seat without a back, of Turkish origin. In a box ottoman the seat is hinged. 
Oval. — A term incorrectly applied to an ellipse, really a form composed of two semi-ellipses 

egg-shaped. 
Overmantel. — The upper portion of a chimney-piece. 
Over-door. — A pedimental form fixed above a doorway. 
OVOLO. — A Classic moulding. See p. 273. 

Oxidising. — A finish imparted to metalwork by treatment with acids upon a brass surface. 
Oyster Shell. — Veneering. See p. 224. 



Parchment Panel. — An alternative term for a linen-fold panel. See example on p. 287. 
Parquetry. — A process of inlaying or building up a floor of wood in the form of mosaic. See 

also chapter on " Veneering." 
Pater/e. — Small circular or elliptic carved ornaments applied to friezes, pediments, chair 

legs, &c. 
Pedestal. — The part underneath the column in architecture ; also a stand for statuettes, &c. 

(see p. 205) ; also a rectangular form with a cupboard or drawers supporting the frieze and 

top of sideboards and various tables : hence the term " pedestal table," &c. 
Pediment. — A triangular or curved gable over a portico door or window ; also a similar form 

placed above the cornice in various types of furniture. 
Pkitra Dura. — A form of inlaying in marble. 

Pellets. — Small wooden plugs or studs used for concealing screw-heads. See p. 74. 
Pembroke Table. — A table with a fixed frame and flaps on each side, supported with brackets. 
PENDANT. — A hanging ornament on ceilings and roofs, or to parts of furniture. 
Perpendicular Style. — The last of the Gothic periods, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 

The name refers to the upright and rectilinear forms of its tracery, &c. 
Pie-Crust Table. — Small circular tables with the edge curved, and raised above the surface, 

as in Chippendale tables. 
Pier Glass. — A wall mirror hanging between windows, usually above a semicircular or "pier 

table." 
Pigeon Holes. — The divisions or compartments in a stationery case for the reception of 

papers, &c. 
Pilaster. — A rectangular shaped column fixed close to a wall or similar surface, and project- 
ing about one-fourth of its width. 
Pillar. — An alternative term for, and synonymous with, "column" or shaft. 
Pillar and Claw. — Applied to circular tables of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries 

made with a centre pillar and claw feet. 
Pitch. — Applied to the angle or "pitch" of a plane iron. 
Planted. — Applied to mouldings, means those mitred and fixed separately from the framing 

or groundwork, not stuck on the solid. 



GLOSSARY 367 

Plaque. — A circular or elliptic medallion of porcelain, Sevres, or Wedgwood, used in the 

decoration of furniture. 
Plinth. — The framed-up base or bottom part of carcase work. 
PLUGGING. — Consists of driving pieces of wood into the joints of brick walls for purposes of 

fixing framing. See p. 277. 
Pocketing. — A method of preparing parts of work for the reception of screws. See p. 51. 
Pollard. — A tree that has had the boughs and top " polled " or " lopped off," causing a 

peculiar growth at the top, which yields finely figured veneers. 
Pounce. — A coloured powdery substance, used by marquetry cutters to copy and mark out 

designs, which they do with a pounce box. 
PRESS. — A dwarf cupboard or wardrobe, used for linen. 
Prime Cost Estimate. — Refer to Estimate. 
Profile. — The outline or contour of an object. 
Projection.— A term given to the overhang of a top cornice or moulding. See also 

Isometric and Oblique Projection. 



Quadrant Stay. — A metal support used for supporting flaps, falls, and secretaire fronts. See 

p. 264. 
Quartered Oak. — The method of cutting a log into four quarters, and then parallel to the 

"medullary rays" or "silver grain," synonymous with "wainscot oak." See description 

on p. 240. 
Quatrefoil.— A Gothic detail consisting of four foils within a circle. See p. 240. 
Quirk. — The narrow groove or "sunk fillet" at the side of a bead. 



Radial Bar. — A wooden bar to which a point and pencil are attached in order to strike large 

curves. 
Raking. — Pitched up, out of horizontal. 
Ratchet Brace. — A brace or stock with a wheel and tooth attachment, which enables it to be 

used in corners close to a wall or floor. 
Rebate. — A rectangular channel on the edge of a piece of wood or framing worked with a 

rebate plane. 
Recess. — An alcove in a room, or a niche shape in a wall. 
Recessing. — Refers to a machine process, by which an effect is obtained similar to overlaid 

fretwork, a feature of Chippendale work. 
Reeding. — Semicircular moulded projections, similar to inverted flutes on turned shafts and 

pillars. 
Renaissance. — Meaning literally, New Birth. A style of architecture and decoration 

which originated in Italy in the fifteenth century. 
Rep. — A material used in upholstery work, of a fine cord-like texture. 
Reredos. — The back of an altar ; an altar piece or screen. 
Return. — This term indicates a repeat or continuation of two adjoining faces. 
Riband Decoration. — Carved or inlaid ornament resembling ribbon, a feature of various 

eighteenth century styles. 
"Riband Back."— A characteristic Chippendale chair back, p. 313. 
Ribbon and Stick. — Ornamental detail resembling ribbon wound upon a stick, Louis XVI. 

detail. 



368 GLOSSARY 

Riffler. — A curved file or rasp. 

Rim. — An edge or projection round tray and table tops, also the circular shape underneath the 

tops of shaped tables. 
ROCOCO. —French ornament of the Louis XIV. and XV. period, resembling shell forms and 

dripping water, sometimes referred to as " pebble and splash." 
Roe. — Pertaining to the peculiar markings of figured veneer, a spotty arrangement or fish roe 

appearance. 
Rosette. — An ornament or patera resembling a rose. 
Rotten Stone. — A soft stone used in combination with oil in polishing " Buhl," pearl, and 

metal work. 
Rule Joint. — See chapter on "Joints." 
Run Out. — Applied to a moulding which runs out to a point as in old work, before mitres 

were used. 



Sand Bag. — An arrangement used for curved veneering. See p. 214. 

Sag. — The curvature effected by the action of a weight or load, as in thin shelves in a book- 
case. 

Salient Angle. — An outside or projecting angle or corner. 

Scallop. — Carved detail resembling an " escallop shell." 

Scotia. — A classic moulding. See p. 273. 

Scribing. — See description on p. 69. 

Scribing Piece. — A piece of stuff screwed on to the back of a carcase, and under the pro- 
jection of the top, for the purpose of being scribed over the skirting. 

Scroll Ornament. — An architectural detail of convolute form, i.e., rolled together. 

Scrutoire or Scriptoire.— An old name given to enclosed writing cabinets or tables, from 
Escritoire. 

SECRETAIRE. — A piece of furniture with falling front used for writing purposes, an escritoire ; 
usually applied to the deep drawer which pulls forward and has a hinged front. 

SECTION. — A representation of any object as if cut through on a line, which is indicated in 
plans and working drawings by blue section lines. 

Serpentine. — A term applied to various articles of furniture, such as "serpentine sideboard," 
in which the front lines in plan consist of a serpentine or curved shape. 

SETTEE. — A light seat with low back and arms, sometimes stuffed. 

SETTING Out.— The process of preparing rods and working drawings. 

SETTLE. — An old form of seat with ends and a back. 

Shaded Marquetry. —A process of shading, effected with hot sand. See chapter on 
" Veneering." 

SHOW Wood. — Applied to stuffed chairs with parts of the frame showing. 

Skiver. — An inferior kind of leather used for lining table tops, and made from split sheepskin. 

Slats. — Horizontal rails in a chair back. 

Sliders. — Flaps or shelves, which pull or slide out of a carcase. See also Lopers. 

Slot Screwing. — A method of fixing whereby the screw heads are not seen. See p. 277. 

Soclk. — A plain block acting as a plinth or pedestal to a statuette. 

Sofa Table. — A table with flaps at the ends, designed by Sheraton. 

Soffit. — The under side of an opening, i.e., head lining in a wall ; also the under side of wide 
" corona " mouldings. 

Sole. — The bottom or face of a plane. 

SPADE TOE. — A characteristic finish at the bottom of tapered legs in the eighteenth century 
styles, the outline resembling a spade in shape. 

Spandrel or SPANDRIL. — The triangular space left between one side of the curve of an arch 
and the sides of a rectangle enclosing it. Span-rail, a perversion of the above, is a term 
applied to a curved rail between two uprights. See Dresser on p. 97. 



GLOSSARY 369 

Specification. — A written statement giving a minute description and particulars of work to 

be executed. 
Spindle.— A small turned pillar used in galleries ; also applied to a moulding machine. 
Spinet. — An early form of piano. 
Spiral Turning. — A special process of turned work on the principle of Archimedes' screw, 

characteristic of chair and table legs of the seventeenth century. 
Splat or Splad. — The upright and wide rail in a chair back, usually applied to chairs of the 

Queen Anne period ; also called " Banister " when narrow. 
Splay. — A slope, or bevel, of unequal depth or width. 
Split Handles. — Brass drop handles of the Queen Anne period, resembling "split " turning, 

and usually cast hollow. 
Sprung Moulding. — A term applied to a curved moulding ; also a thin moulded piece of 

wood used for cornices, and attached to blocks or brackets fixed to the cornice frame. 
Spoon Back. — A term applied to Queen Anne chair backs, which, when viewed from the side, 

resemble the curve in a spoon, and fit into the figure. 
Squab. — A loose cushion seat for a chair or couch. 
Stacking. — Refers to seasoning of timber ; the planks or balks are "stacked" with spaces in 

between to allow the free access of air. 
Staff Bead. — Synonymous with return bead, worked upon a salient angle with a quirk upon 

each side. 
Stall. — The seat for an ecclesiastical dignitary in a church ; also the choir stalls. 
Standard. — Applied to furniture, means the upright supports of a toilet glass frame. For 

timber, see p. 333. 
Steam Chest. — An iron contrivance or box containing steam for purposes of heating glue, 

cauls for veneering, and bending wood. 
Stile. — The outside vertical members of a door or piece of framing. 
Strapwork. — Carved detail derived from bands frequently interlacing, used in the decoration 

of furniture, especially in the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods. 
Stub Tenon. — A short tenon. 

STUCCO. — A fine plaster-like substance used for internal decorations, chiefly of the Adam period. 
Stuck Moulding.— Any moulding worked upon the solid, i.e., stiles and rails of a door. 
Stud. — A small metal object, with projecting head part, used for supporting adjustable shelves. 

See p. 143. 
Stuff-over. — Applied to chairs stuffed all over. 
Style. — Applied to furniture and decoration, means " period" work, or the delineation of certain 

characteristic proportions and forms in vogue during a specific period, or the manner of a 

certain master or designer, i.e., Sheraton and Adam styles. 
Sunk Panel. — A recessed form, used in pilasters. 
Surbase.— In architecture the group of mouldings at the top of the pedestal ; in furniture, a 

moulded part between the cornice and plinth, such as the table part. 
Swag. — A form of swinging or suspended ornament, usually drapery or festoons of flowers, 

characteristic of many styles. 
Swan-neck. — Applied to the curved pediments on Chippendale cabinets. 
Sweep. — An alternative term for curve, usually applied to a symmetrical freehand curve. 
Swivel Hook. — A reversible pivoted hook fixed in wardrobes. 



Tall-Boy. — A double chest of drawers, one carcase above another. 

Tambour. — A flexible shutter or fall, made by glueing thin strips of wood to a linen backing. 

Tang. — The end of a chisel or tool which enters the handle. 

Taper. — A diminishing form characteristic of the eighteenth century legs, usually with a 

" spade toe." 
Template. — A pattern made of thin wood or metal. 
Terminal. — The finish to a newel or standard, 
24 



37 o GLOSSARY 

Tern Feet.— Tern meaning three, applied to Chippendale and Louis XV. work. Feet consist- 
ing of a three scroll arrangement. 
Tester.— The flat covering at the top of a bed, in the form of a canopy supported by posts ; 

when only at the head it is a half tester. 
Thicknessing up. — The process of apparently increasing the thickness of a top by glueing a 

narrow margin of wood on the under side. 
Three- Ply.— See Laminate. 
Thumb Plane. — Small planes. 

Til U km inc.. — A process of turning by which a square moulded effect is obtained. See p. 272. 
Toat. — A plane handle. 
Toothing. — Effected with a toothing plane, to assist the cohesion of two surfaces. See 

descriptions on p. 212. 
Tortoise Shell. — Used in "Buhl" work and inlaying; a gilt or vermilion groundwork is 

prepared to add lustre to the shell. 
Torus. — A Classic moulding, resembling a large bead. 
Tracery. — Ornamental geometrical divisions and overlays in Gothic work, also synonymous 

fretwork in Chippendale work, also pierced brass and metal lattice work in Sheraton 

doors used in combination with silk backing. 
Trammel. — An instrument used for describing ellipses. See illustration on p. 28. 
Transverse Section. — A cross section horizontal, a sectional plan. 
Traversing. — The process of cross planing wide surfaces. See p. 60. 
Trefoil. — A Gothic detail consisting of three foils, " trefoliated." See p. 240. 
TREILLAGE. — A form of trellis work, made with laths of wood, and used for floral decoration. 
Trenching.— Grooving. 
Trestle Table. — The original form of table, consisting of boards placed upon trestles ; now 

used for portable purposes. 
Triptych. — An altar piece made of three parts — a centre, and two side compartments 

folding over the centre. 
TROCHILUS. — A classic moulding, consisting of a complex hollow curve. 
Tudor Rose. — A conventional carved rendering of a rose characteristic of early Tudor work. 

See example on p. 281. 
Tuscan. — One of the five architectural orders, a variety of the " Doric." 



u 

Under-cut.— A term applied to mouldings of the Louis XIV. and XV. periods ; also termed 

"Sloper Nose"; also undercut carving; a feature of Grinling Gibbons' work; leaving 

portions of the work separate from the ground. 
Upsett Fibre. — Caused by unskilled felling, whereby the fibres are crushed. See chapter 

on "Timber." 
Urn. — A vase-shaped vessel, used as turned detail or ornaments ; also urns and knife cases 

standing upon a pedestal and characteristic of the Adam period. 



V 

Valance. — A fringe of drapery hanging from a cornice or bed rail. 

Vaulting. — Arched work in roofs and ceilings. 

\ ENEER. — Thin sheets of wood, the thickness ranging from ,V to A of an inch, termed 

" knife " and " saw cut." 
Vernis Martin. — A French process of "Lacquer" or "Lacque" work invented by Vernis 

Martin, born in 1706. 
\ 1 1 iiiULE. — An antechamber between the hall and outer doors. 



GLOSSARY 3?f 



Vignette. — Gothic detail, running ornament of fine leaves and tendrils. 
Volute. — A spiral scroll used in Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite capitals. 
Voider.— An old name for a butler's tray. 



w 

Wainscot. — Applied to timber, means oak cut specially to show the "silver grain." "Wain- 
scoting" is synonymous with "Dadoing"; the panelling about five feet high round a 
room. See chapter on "Timber," p. 332. 

Warping. — The effect produced on timber due to unequal shrinkage ; also termed " winding." 

Water Gilding. — The gilding of ormolu mounts by covering them with a thin deposit 
of gold and mercury, the latter being then volatilised. 

Water Leaf. — An ornamental detail resembling an elongated laurel leaf used chiefly in 
Hepplewhite and Sheraton work. 

Wave Moulding. — Resembling a wave in outline, executed chiefly in ebony and ivory, or 
stained sycamore. See examples on p. 224. 

Wax Inlaying.— A species of incised work, filled in with coloured wax substances. 

Working Drawing. — A full-sized representation of an object with sections. Plans indicated 
by red section lines, and vertical sections with blue. 

Wrought (abbreviated form, " Wrot "). — A term used by architects, synonymous with 
" worked " or " planed." 

What-Not. — A tier of shelves supported by turned posts. See Etagere. 



Yorkshire Dresser. — A form of dresser with a low back, made in oak or deal, and peculiar 
to Yorkshire. 

Terms applied to timber, tools, and construction will be found in the chapters dealing with 
those subjects. 



A Short List of Books, specially recommended for 

the Study of HISTORIC FURNITURE, WOODWORK, AND 

Decoration, with some works on Timber. 



The folloiving List is merely intended to mention the Books that seem most useful for 
Reference in the various Styles, and many have been chosen on account of the large 
Plates given in them. 



GENERAL WORKS ON FURNITURE. 

Benn (R. Davis). Style in Furniture. With numerous examples from 

Drawings. Thick 8vo. 1904. 

Benn (N. P.) and Shapland (H. P.). The Nation's Treasures. 

Measured Drawings of the old Furniture in the V. and A. Museum, comprising 48 full-page Plates 
and many Illustrations of Furniture drawn to scale. 410. London. 

Burgess (F. W.). Antique Furniture. With 126 Illustrations and 

400 pages of Text. London, 1915. Large 8vo. 

Gregory (E. W.). The Furniture Collector. Containing 55 Illustra- 
tions of typical pieces of Furniture from Public and Private Collections. 2nd Edition. 8vo. 
London. 

Haydon (Arthur). Chats on Old Furniture. Containing 283 pages 

of Text and 109 Illustrations, also Bibliography. 8vo. London, 191 7. 

Litchfield (F.). Illustrated History of Furniture from the Earliest 

to the Present Times. Sixth Edition. 4to. 1907. 

Litchfield (F.). How to Collect Old Furniture. Containing 

170 pages and 75 Illustrations. 8vo, cloth. London, 1920. 

Little Books about Old Furniture. Small 8vo. Vol. I. — Tudor and 

Stuart, 191 1; Vol. II. — The Periods of Queen Anne, 1920; Vol. III. — Chippendale and his 
School, 1919 ; Vol. IV. — The Sheraton Period, 1919; Vol. V. — French Furniture under Louis XV. , 
1919 ; Vol. VI. — French Furniture under Louis XVI. and the Empire, 1920. 

Pollen (J. Hungerford). Ancient and Modern Furniture in 

SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. With an Historical Introduction. 400 pp. Illustrated by 
Plates and Wood Engravings. Large 8vo. 1874. 

Pollen (J. H.). Ancient and Modern Furniture and Woodwork. 

Vol. I. Revised by T. A. Lehfeldt. With Illustrations. 8vo. 1908. 

Roe (Fred). A History of Oak Furniture. Illustrated with 76 

Drawings and Photographs. 44 pages of Text. 4to. London, 1920. 

ENGLISH FURNITURE OF ALL PERIODS- 

Cescinsky (H.). English Furniture of the XVIIIth Century. 

Containing 1,200 Illustrations. 3 vols., 4to. 

Fenn (F.) and Wyllie (B.). Old English Furniture. Containing 90 

pages and 94 Plates of examples from Tudor times to the XVIIIth Century. 8vo. 

Howard (F. E.) and Crossley (F. H.). English Church Woodwork. 

A Study in English Gothic Craftsmanship down to the middle of the XVIth Century. Illustrating, 
in a Series of over 325 examples from Photographs specially taken, the development of English 
Church Furniture and Craftsmanship, together with many measured drawings of details. 4to. 1917. 

Macquoid (Percy). A History of English Furniture. With 

numerous Illustrations. 4 Volumes, folio. 1901-9. Vol. I. — The Age of Oak, 1500- 1660 (Tudor, 
Elizabethan, and Jacobean); Vol. II. — The Age of Walnut, 1660-1720 (Restoration and Dutch 
Influence); Vol. III. — The Age of Mahogany, 1720-1770 (including the Chippendale School); 
Vol. IV. — The Age of Satinwood, 1770-1820 (including the work of Hepplewhite, Sheraton, 
Adam, &c). 



LIST OF BOOKS 373 

Percival (M.). Old English Furniture and its Surroundings. 

From the Restoration to the Regency. 203 pages. 62 full-page Plates, 44 Figures. 4to, cloth. 
London, 1920. 

Strange (T. A.). English Furniture, Decoration and Woodwork, 

AND THE ALLIED ARTS, DURING THE LAST HALF OF THE XVIIth, THE 
WHOLE OF THE XVIIIth, AND THE EARLY PART OF THE XlXth CENTURIES. 
Containing 3,500 Illustrations. Demy quarto. London. 

Tanner (Henry). English Interior Woodwork of the XVIth, 

XVIIth, AND XVIIIth CENTURIES. Containing 50 Plates of Drawings to scale, illustrating 
Chimney-Pieces, Panelling, Staircases, Doors, &c, with descriptive Text. Folio. 1902. 

ENGLISH WORK— ELIZABETHAN AND JACOBEAN. 

Jourdain (Margaret). English Decoration and Furniture of the 

TUDOR, ELIZABETHAN, AND EARLY STUART PERIODS (1500-1660). Containing 
200 pages, with over 250 Illustrations reproduced from Photographs and Drawings. Folio. 1922. 

Gotch (J. A.), F.S.A. Architecture of the Renaissance in Eng- 
land. Illustrated from Buildings erected between 1560 and 1635, with Text. Containing 145 
Plates, with 180 Text Illustrations. 2 vols., folio. 1891-94. 

Nash's Mansions of England in the Olden Time. Containing 104 

Interior and Exterior Views, reproduced in Lithography, of the Finest Houses of the Elizabethan and 
Jacobean Times. 4 vols. , folio. 1839-42. Small edition. 4 vols., 4to. 1869. 

Hurrell (J. W.). Old Oak English Furniture. A Series of Measured 

Drawings, with some examples of Woodwork, Plaster, &c. Containing no Photo-lithographic 
Plates. Folio. 1900. 

Sanders (W. Bliss). Examples of Carved Oak Woodwork of the 

XVIth AND XVIIth CENTURIES. With 25 Plates of Drawings. Folio. 1883. 

Sanders (W. B.). Half-Timbered Houses and Carved Oakwork 

OF THE XVIth AND XVIIth CENTURIES. With 30 full page Plates. Folio. 1894. 

Marshall (A.). Specimens of Antique Carved Furniture and 

WOODWORK. Measured and Drawn. With 50 Photo-lithographic Plates of Jacobean Work, 
including a few Photographs. Folio. 1886. 

Shaw (Henry). Specimens of Ancient Furniture. 74 Engraved 

Plates, chiefly of English examples. 4to. 

Small (J. W.), Architect. Scottish Woodwork of the XVIth and 

XVIIth CENTURIES. Containing ioo Lithographic Plates, with details. Folio. 1898. 

ENGLISH WORK— LATE XVIIth AND XVIIIth CENTURIES. 

Belcher (J.) and M. E. Macartney. Later Renaissance Archi- 
tecture IN ENGLAND. Containing 170 Plates, with 153 Illustrations in the Text. 2 vols., 
folio. 1 90 1. 

Heaton (J. Aldam). Furniture and Decoration in England 

DURING THE XVIIIth CENTURY. 200 folio Plates, reproduced in facsimile from the works of 
Eighteenth-Century Designers, with Descriptive Notes. 2 vols, in 4, large folio. 

Simon (Constance). English Furniture Designers of the 

XVIIIth CENTURY. An Historical Account, with Photographic Plates. 8vo. 1904. 

Swarbrick (John). Robert Adam and his Brothers. An Illustrated 

Account of their Lives, Work, and Influence on English Architecture, Decoration, and Furniture. 
Containing 300 pages, with over 200 Illustrations of Architecture and Interior Decoration, Chimney- 
Pieces, Ceilings, Doors, Furniture, &c. 4to. 1916. 

Lenygon (Francis). Decoration in England from 1660-1770. Con- 
taining 300 pages, with over 350 Illustrations from special Photographs, together with four in 
Colours. Folio. 1914. 

Lenygon (Francis). Furniture in England from 1660-1760. Con- 
taining 300 pages with over 400 Illustrations from special Photographs, together with five in 
Colours. Folio. 1914. 

Jourdain (Margaret). English Decoration and Furniture of the 

LATER XVIIIth CENTURY (1750-1820). Containing 272 pages and over 350 Illustrations from 
Photographs and Drawings, together with 8 Plates reproduced by the Collotype Process. Folio. 1 922. 



374 LIST OF BOOKS 

WORKS ON FURNITURE PUBLISHED DURING THE 
XVIIIth CENTURY. 

The Works in Architecture of Robert and James Adam. 

105 Plates. 3 vols., folio. 1778-1822. 

Chippendale's The Gentleman and Cabinetmaker's Director. 

1st Edition. 1754. 3rd Edition, containing 200 Plates. Folio. 1762. 

Hepplewhite's Cabinetmaker and Upholsterer's Guide. Con- 
taining 300 Designs on 12S Plates. Small folio. 1794. 

Sheraton (Thomas). The Cabinetmaker's and Upholsterer's 

DRAWING-BOOK. With many Engraved Plates of Designs. 4to. 1793-4. 

Ince and Mayhew. The Universal System of Household 

FURNITURE. Designs after the manner of Chippendale. Engraved Plates. Folio. London, 
undated (probably about 1760). 

The Cabinetmaker's London Book of Prices. By the London Society 

of Cabinetmakers. Designs by Thomas Shearer, A. Hepplewhite, and W. Casement. Engraved 
Plates. Quarto. London, 1793. 

Upwards of One Hundred New and Genteel Designs. Being all 

the most approved Patterns of Household Furniture. By a Society of Upholsterers, Cabinetmakers, 
&c. 3 Parts, containing 120 Plates of Designs in the Chippendale Style. 8vo. N.D. [about 1780]. 

FOREIGN WORKS ON FURNITURE. 

Viollet-Le-Duc's Dictionary of French Furniture (Mediaeval) 

(Dictionnaire du Mobilier francais de PEpoque Carlovingienne a la Renaissance). Containing 
nearly 2,400 Plates and Woodcuts. 6 vols., 8vo. Paris. 

Havard's Dictionary of Furniture and Decoration (Dictionnaire 

de PAmeublement et de la Decoration. Par Henry Havard). Illustrated by 256 Plates and 3,650 
Wood Engravings in the 5,600 pages of Text. 4 vols., large 4to. Paris. 

Molinier (E.). A History of French Furniture and Interior 

DECORATION (Le -Mobilier Francais). Vol. I.— The Middle Ages and Early Renaissance; 
Vol. II. — XVTIth and XVIIIth Centuries. With many Photogravure Plates and Drawings in the 
Text. 2 vols., folio. Paris (about 1900). 

Williamson (E.). French XVIIIth Century Furniture (Les Meubles 

d'Art du Mobilier National). Containing 100 Photogravure Plates, with a short Introduction and 
Descriptions. 2 vols., folio. Paris. N.D. 

Rouyer (E.). French Decorative Art from Francis I. to Louis 

XVI. (L'Art Architectural en Fiance). 200 Engraved Plates of Decorative details. 2 vols., small 
folio. Paris, 1867. 

Rouyer (E.). French Interior Decoration from Francis I. to 

LOUIS XIII. (La Renaissance Decorations Interieures). 100 Engraved Plates, with Mouldings 
and Details. Folio. Paris. 

Rowe (Eleanor). French Wood Carvings from the National 

MUSEUMS. Gothic to XVIIIth Century. 54 Plates reproduced from Photographs, and Letter- 
press. 1896. 

Percier and Fontaine. Designs for Interior Decorations and 

FURNITURE IN THE EMPIRE STVLE (Decorations Interieures). 100 Outline Engraved 
Plates. Small folio. Paris, 1812. 

Roeper (A.) and H. Bosch. German Furniture of all Styles, from 

the Middle Ages to the End of the XVIIIth Century (Mobel aller Slilarten). 50 Collotype 
Plates, comprising about So Examples. 4to. Munich. 

Heftner-Alteneck (J. H.) Details of German Woodcarving, 

Mediaeval and Renaissance (Ornumente der Holtz-sculptur). With many Examples on Photo- 
bii Plates. 4to. Munich. 



LIST OF BOOKS 375 

Singleton (Esther). Dutch and Flemish Furniture. With 57 

Plates. Thick Svo. 1907. 

Wytsman (P.). A Collection of Old Belgian Interiors, Chiefly of 

the XVIth and XVIIth Centuries. 90 Photographic Plates. Small folio. Brussels, 1900. 

Lockwood (L. V.). Colonial Furniture in America. Handbook of 

the Old Furniture introduced by the Colonists. Containing 300 Photographic Illustrations of Typical 
Examples. 2 vols, quarto. 1902. 

Singleton (Esther). The Furniture of Our Forefathers. With 

Critical Descriptions by Russell Sturgis. Containing 600 pages of Text and 300 Illustrations. 8vo. 
New York. 

Nutting (Wallace). Furniture of the Pilgrim Century. Containing 

numerous Plates from Photographs, illustrating in all 1,000 Examples. 4to. Boston. 

Eberlein (H. D.) and M'Clure (A.). The Practical Book of Period 

FURNITURE. Containing 250 Illustrations and 371 pages of Text. Quarto. Philadelphia. 

DOMENECH (R.) AND BUENO (L. P.). OLD SPANISH FURNITURE (Muebles 
Antiquos Espanoles). A Portfolio, Size 10 by 13 in., containing 60 Photographic Plates and a 
brief Spanish Text. Barcelona. 

Byne (Arthur) and Stapley (Mildred). Spanish Interiors and 

FURNITURE. Containing numerous Plates of Photographs and Drawings. Four parts in one 
Portfolio. Folio. New York. 

Hunter (G. L.). Italian Furniture and Interiors. A Collection of 

200 full-page Plates, from Photographs of Italian Interiors and Furniture both Mediaeval and 
Renaissance. Folio, Portfolio. New York. 

PRACTICAL BOOKS ON FURNITURE. 

Wells (Percy A.). Furniture for Small Houses. Containing 56 Plates 

reproduced from Photographs and Working Drawings, and 13 Diagrams in the Text. 4to. London, 
1920. 

Rudd (J. H.). Practical Cabinetmaking and Draughting. 172 pages. 

Containing a large number of Diagrams and Working Drawings by the Author. 4to. London, 
1912. 

Bowers (R. S.), Bovingdon (J.), and Others. Furniture-Making. 

With 1,082 Illustrations showing Designs, Working Drawings, and Complete Details of 170 pieces 
of Furniture, with Practical Information on their Construction. Svo. London, 1920. 



WORKS ON TIMBERS. 

Howard (A. L.). A Manual of the Timbers of the World. Their 

Characteristics and Uses. To which is appended an Account by S. Fitzgerald of the Artificial 
Seasoning of Timber. With 100 Illustrations. 446 pages. Svo. London, 1920. 

Wallis-Tayler (A. J.). The Preservation of Wood. A descriptive 

Treatise on the Processes and on the Mechanical Appliances used for the Preservation of Wood. 
With 119 Illustrations. 344 pages. 8vo. London. 

The Timbers of Commerce and their Identification. By 

Herbert Stone. With 186 Photomicrographs. Large 8vo. 



INDEX 



Acacia wood, 351-352 

Action of back irons, 6 

Adam, R. and J., brasswork, 269 

„ details of card table, 132 

„ mouldings, 274 

„ pier table, Plate xxxi. 

„ sideboard, 151-152 

„ style of, 254 

Adriatic oak, 335 
African mahogany, 337 
„ oak, 336 
„ walnut, 339 
„ (South) woods, 353 
Allowances for working and fitting, 55 
Almery, description of, 2 
Amboyna wood, 21 1 
American beech, 342 
„ birch, 343 

„ maple, 343 
„ oaks, 335 

„ poplar, 345 

„ spruce, 346 

„ walnut, 338 
Angelique wood, 338 
Angle bridle joint, 39 
„ of dovetails, 66 
Angles of plane irons, 7 
Annual rings, 327 
Annulets, 275 
Apple wood, 342 

Application of bending to curved work, 85 
Apprenticeship, 2 
Arm-chairs, 318 
Armoire, description of, 2 
Arrangement and details of panelling, 281 

„ of grounds for panelled rooms, 

279 
Ash, various, 356 
Astragal, 274 

\, shutting joint, 49, 156 
Audley End House, 259 
Austrian oak, 335 
Automatic locking action, 298 
Ayers' patent rack (for settees), 325 



B 



Back irons, 6 

„ saws, 10- 1 1 
Balk, definition of, 33^ 



Balloon clock case, 188-189 
Baltic oak, 334 
Band cramps, 316 

„ saws, 271, Plate xlii. 
Bandings, 217 

„ building up, 219 

„ inlaying, 218-219 

„ types of, 218 

Bareface tenon, 41 
Barefaced tongued joint, 47-48 
Barred door moulds, 274 

„ doors, methods of construction, build- 
up bars, and mitreing mouldings, 79 
Base, 35 

„ mouldings, 273-274 
Basil, 7 

Basswood, 345 
Bastard teak, 344 
Battens chased into a wall, 277 
„ for wall grounds, 277 
„ size of, 333 
Battle Abbey, 259 
Bead and butt joints, 47 
„ ,, flush slipping, 82 
„ „ rebate joint, 47 
„ ,, reel on panelling, 284 
,, planes, 10 
Beaded matching, 47 

,, panels, 80 
Beads, types of, 274 
Beam ceilings, preparation of, for panelling, 

278 
Bean tree, 351-352 
Bedstead fittings, 186 
Bedsteads, 184-188 
Beech, varieties of, 342, 350-351 
Bench, 16-17 
Bending curved ends, 85 

„ lines round a heated bar, 106 
Bethnal Green Museum, 259 
Bevel, rebated joints, 49-50 

„ sliding, 15 
Bevelled joints, 38 

,, work, development of, 244-245 
Birch, various, 343, 349 
Bismarck plane, 9 

Bits, centre, 13-14; countersinks, 13-14; 
dowel, 13-14 ; drills, 15 ; expanding, 13- 
14 ; gimlet or Swiss, 13-14 ; holder, 15 ; 
nose, 13-14; rimers, 15; shell, 13-14; 
spoon or spin, 13-14 ; turnscrew, 13-14; 
twist or Jennings, 13-14 ; types of, 13-14 



378 



INDEX 



Blackbutt, 351 

Blood wood, 352 

Boards, general terms and sizes of, 233 

Bog oak, 334 

Bolted mitreing, 45 

Bolts, various, 262 

Bombe work, 194 

Bookcase, bureau, 146-147 

„ dwarf, 147-148 

„ inlaid, 144-145 

,, revolving, 200-201 

,, with curved doors, 141-142 

Boring tools, 13 
Boule, Andre, 255 
Box saw, 10 

Box for inlaying lines, 220 
Brace, English and American patterns, 13 
Braced drawing board, 22 

,, mitres, 46 
Bracket clocks, construction of, 190 

„ cornices, 280, 294 
Bradawls, 15 

Bradding and pinning, 73 
Brass mouldings, methods of fixing, 136 
Brasswork, requisition for, 230 ; Chapter on, 

XII., p. 260 
Brazilwood, 34S 
Bridle joints, 39-40 
Broad leaf trees, 426 
Bruises, raising, 74 
Buhl work, 221 
Building up bandings, 219 
„ galleries, 86 

„ shaped door heads, 156 

Bullnose plane, 7 
Bunya-bunya wood, 350 
Bureau, 127 

,, bookcase, 146 
Burrs in veneer, 21 1 

„ as a defect, 329 
Butt joints, 47 
Butted hinged joint, 49 
Butternut, 339 
Buttoning, methods of, 51 
Buttonwood, 343 



Cabinet, coromandel, Plate XIX. 
Cabinetmaker's kit of tools, 18 
Cabinetmaking, ancient and modern, 1 
Cabriole leg, setting-out and shaping, 321 
Caffiere, .Martin, 1 18 
Calamander wood, 340 
Camber in shipwork, 25S 
Camphor wood, 348 
Camwood, 348 
Canadian ash, 342 

„ red pine, 347 

,, rock elm, 344 
Caoba wood, 337 
Cap irons, 6 
Cape box, 353 
„ cedar, 353 
„ ebony, 353 



Cape walnut, 353 

Carcase, construction of, 74, 77 

„ definition of, 74, 140 

„ setting-out, 75, 140 

„ work, Chapter VII., 440 ei seq. 
Carcases, circular, 84 
Care of tools, 21 
Carlin, Martin, 1 18 
Cash desk, 302, Plate XLIX. 
Cast in timber, 35 
Castors, 162, 262 

Catches, bullet and thumb, 171, 262 
Cedars, various, 347 
Ceilings, beam, 278 

„ framed, 278 

„ preparation of, for panelling, 278 
Celery-top pine, 350 
Cellarets, 149 

Centre-hinged bureau fall, 49 
Centre hinges, fixing, 266, 277 

,, types of, 266 

Centre-hung door, 49 
Chair backs, types of — Chippendale, Hepple- 

white, Jacobean, Queen Anne, Sheraton, 

313 ; eighteenth century, 318 
Chair chart, sizes and characteristics of 

chairs and seats of different periods, 

double sheet, 43 
Chair-making, Chapter XVI., 312 ; connecting 

segments, 317; cramping, 316; cutting 

sweeps, 314; making loose seats, 319; 

marking out curved arms, 317 ; mortis- 
ing leg on saddle, 317 ; practice of, 315 ; 

shaping in leg-vice, 315 
Chairs, identification of, 314 
Chamfer, cusping, 240 

,, planes, 10 
Chamfers, 35 
Chariot piane, 7-9 
Chatsworth House, 259 
Chatter in planes, 21 
Cheese cupboard, 2 
Cherrywood, 341 
Chesterfield settee, 323 
Chestnut, 343 
Chests, 2 

„ of drawers, 30, 1 40-141 
China cabinets, 164-167, 257 

,, „ mahogany, Plate XXII. 

Chippendale, T., bedsteads, 186 ; brasswork, 

269; chair backs, 313; chair, Plate xxix. ; 

commode, 192-193; mouldings, 274; 

pedestal, 204 ; pillar table, 139 ; screens, 

195 ; silver table, 128 ; style of, 252 ; 

tables, 132-138 ; writing table, 119 
Chisels, various, 12 
Chucks, types of, 271 
Cinquefoil, 240 

Cipriani, painted work by, 254 
Circular dome, setting out and construction 
of, 248 
,, dumb waiter, 208 
,, pedestals, 215 
„ saw, Plate XXIII. 
Cistern dovetailing, 66 



INDEX 



379 



Clamping, 38 
Claydon House, 259 
Clearing out stub mortises, 64 
Cleating, 51 

Clocks, various, 189, 191-192 
Coachwood, 352 
Cocked beads, 107 
Cocus wood, 340 
Cofferers, Guild of, 2 
Coffers, 2 

Colonial Georgian Room, 284 
mahogany, 343 
„ timbers, 348-353 
Colouring a drawing, 25 
Colours, preparation of, 25 
Commercial sizes of timber, 333 
Compass planes, 9 

„ saw, 10 

Coniferous woods, 327 
Connecting leg to circular riin, 105 
Construction of Gothic tracery, 241 

„ plinths, 76 

Conversion of timber, 331-332 
Convexity of cutting edges, 59 
Coopered joints, 38 
Copeland, H., 254 
Corner cabinets, 32, 197-198 
Cornices, bracket, 294 

„ building up and fixing, 35, 280 

„ coved, 285 

Coromandel wood, 340 
Countersinks, 13-14 
Coves, 215 

Cramp rack supports for bench, use of, 60 
Cramping joints, 62 
Cramps, various, 17, 316 
Cross banding, 216 

„ cutting, 57 
Crunden, J., 255 
Cuba mahogany, 336 
Cudgerie wood, 352 
Cup shakes in timber, 328-329 
Cupboard turns, 263 
Curio tables 122-124 
Curved doors, 87 

,, drawer fronts, 84 

„ lines, measurement of, 243 

„ rims, 86 

„ panelling, 84-85, 87 

„ work — circular carcases, 83 

„ „ „ glass frames, 175 

„ „ cylinders, 1 14 

„ „ development of, 242 

„ „ kidney tables, 1 10-1 1 1 

„ „ laminating, 85 

,, ,, saddle for, 215 

„ ,, segmental building, 83 

,, „ table rims, 83 

Cusping, 240 
Cutting a diminished dovetail, 75 

„ a groove for framing, 295 

„ actions, 6 

„ and cap iron, 6 

„ edge shapes, 58 

„ lists, arrangement of, 55, 229 



Cutting tenons, 57 

Cylinder fall movements, 264-265 

„ writing tables, 1 10 
Cypress wood, 347 



Dado mountings, 281 

Deals, red, yellow, white, 333, 346 

„ sizes of, 333 
Decorative metalwork, 267 
Defects in timber, 328 
Dentils, 35 

Depth router, use of, 80 
Desiccating, 331 
Design, principles of, 34 
Details for cornice, &c, 285 

,, of Colonial Georgian room, 285, Plate 

XLIV. 

,, „ museum print stand, 309 
„ „ panelling, 281-283, 2 § 8 
Development of curved surfaces, 242 

„ pillar or vase shape for 

marquetry, 243 
„ room with measurements 

and angles, 228 
„ splayed veneers, 242 

Diapers, cutting veneers for, 144 
Dining-table clips, 89 
„ „ screws, 89 
„ tables, Plate xv, 91, 93, 94 
Dinner waggon, 197, 199 
Diseases in timber, 329 
Dividing a circle, 25 

,, fluted pilasters, 26 
Doatiness in timber, 329 
Domes, construction of, 246-248 
Donkey ear shoot, 68 

Doors, example and construction of, 78-79 
Double mortise and tenon, 41 
„ rebate and bead, 48 
,, tongued mitre joint, 48 
Dovetail cleating, 51 
„ keying, 51 
Dovetailing, various methods of, 43 
Dovetails, angles of, 66 

„ for carcase work, 75 

,, for drawer sides, 81 

„ (housed), 67 

„ proportions of, 66 

„ setting out, 66 

„ template for, 66 

Dowell fitting, 62 

„ rounders, 65 
Dowelled joints, 37, 62, 65 
Dowelling, use of stop gauge, 65 

„ ,, templates, 62, 65 

Draughtsman's duties, 54 
Drawer fronts, curved, 84 
Drawers, chests of, 30, 139, 160 
„ methods of making, 81 
„ „ slipping, 82 

Drawing and dining room chairs, 319 
,, boards, &c, 22 



3 8o 



INDEX 



Drawing, necessity for, 22 

„ parallel lines with set squares, 24 

Dressers, designs for, 96-97 
Dressing chest, 173 
Drop handles, types of, 268-270 
Dry-rot in timber, 329 
Druxiness in wood, 329 
1 >ug-out chests, 1 
Dust-proof joints, 49 
Dutch marquetry, cabinet with, Plate xxm. 

„ „ clock, Plate xxiv. 

Dyes, woods producing, 348 



Eastlake, C, 256 

Ebonies, various, 340 

Elevation and plan of a parting screen, 87 
„ of chest of drawers, 30 
„ „ semicircular table, 31 

„ „ three-cornered cabinet, 32 

Ellipses, methods of striking, 28-30 

Elizabethan details, 282-283, 2 88 
„ draw tables, 100- 101 
„ style, 251 

Elm, 344 

Empire style, 255 

Enclosed washstands, 307-308 

End grain veneering, 215 
„ of plane showing rays, 5 

Endogenous trees, 326 

Enlargement and reduction of mouldings, 
234-237 

Envelope card table, 132 

Equipment of drawing office, 231 

Escutcheons, 270 

Estimate, specimen of factory, 223 

Estimating, method of, 232 

Evergreen beech, 351 

Exogenous trees, 326 



Face mark, use of, 60 

Facing-up cornice frames, yj 

Factory estimate, 233 

" Fall" in writing tables, 110, 170-172 

Fan iron for cylinder falls, 265 

Fancy woods, various, 342-345 

Figure in oak, 327 

„ veneers, 21 1 
Files, various shapes and cuts, 17 
Fillister, 10 
Finger joint, 52 
Fireplaces, 289-292 
Fitment, 284 
Fitting, allowances for, 55 

„ up a centre part for panelled door, 

79 
,, „ door frame, 79 
Fixing a drawing, 24 

„ fireplaces and panelling, 278 

„ kneehole brackets, methods of, 114 

„ rule joint stay, method of, 204 



Flaps for tables, 103 
Flatting bumpy veneers, 215 

„ in a plank, 332 
Flemish cabinet, measured drawings of, 177- 

179 
Flindosa wood, 382 
Float, use of, 64 
Flush doors, 80 
Fluted corners, 47 
Foliating, 240 
Foremen's work, 226-229 
Forked turnscrews, 12 
Four-poster bedstead, 168-187 
Foxiness in timber, 329 
Foxtail wedging, 41 
Framed ceilings, 278 
French curves, use of, 24 

„ handles, 268 

„ panelling, 294 

„ styles, 255 



Galleries, building up, 86 

„ use in old work, 269 
Gauges, line, 220 

„ margin for cornices, "]"] 

„ marking, cutting, mortise, panel, 

tee, 12 
,, stop for dowels, 62 
Geometry, Chapter in., p. 25, and X., p. 225 
Georgian fireplace, 291-292 

„ style, 252 
Gillow, R., 253 
Gimlets, 15 

Glass backs, types of, 158 
„ paper, grades of, 72 
Glue, manufacture and preparation of, 20 
Glued joints, 37 
Glueing rubbed joints, 62 
„ up carcase, 76 
„ „ framing in long lengths, 279 
Gold Coast mahoganies, 337 
Goodwood House, 259 
Gothic arches, 238-239 
„ details, 238-239, 241 
„ panelling, 286-287 
„ styles, 250 
Gouthiere, 255 
Grandfather clocks, design and construction 

of, 191-192 
Grinding, 7 

Grinling Gibbons, 252, 259, 291 
Grounds for fixtures, 277-278 
Guar wood, 352 
Gum tree, 351 

H 

Haddon Hall, 259 
Hall seat, 208-209 

„ stand, 200, 202-203 

,, table, 1 20-1 21, 125 



INDEX 



38i 



Halved joints, 39 
Hand saw, 16-17 

„ screws, 16-17 
Handrail joints, 51 
Hanging cabinets, 204-205 
„ wall mirror, 206 
Hardwicke Hall, 259 
Harewood, 341 
Hatching, 24 
Hatfield House, 259 
Haunched joints, 41 
Hepplewhite, G., brasswork, 269 

„ chair, Plate xxix. 

„ chair backs, 313 

,, mouldings, 274 

,, screens, 195 

„ style of, 253 

Herring-bone patterns, 216 
Hickory, 344 
Hinged joints, 52 
Hinges, methods of fixing, 266-267 

„ types of, 260-262 
Historic French style, 251 

„ houses open to the public, 259 
Holbein panelling, 281 
Holdfast, 17 
Holly, 341 
Hope, Thomas, 255 
Hopper, development of, 245 
Hornbeam, 344 
Housed joints, 43, 67 

„ leg and fly rail, 103 
Huon pine, 350 



I 



Identification of chairs, 314 

Ightham Mote, 259 

Improved mitre shooting block, 17 

Ince and Mayhew, 255 

Incorrect angles for dovetails, 66 

Indian rosewood, 339 

Inking in, methods of, 24 

Inlaid bookcase, 143 

„ panelling from Sizergh Castle, 222 

Inlaying lines in a tapered leg, 220 
„ methods of, 222 

Intarsia, 223 

Instruments (drawing), 23, 232 

Intersection of a straight mitre, 238 
„ bracket mouldings, 236 

„ curved mouldings, 236 

„ raking mouldings, 238 

Iron barks, 351 
„ planes, 9 

Ironwoods, 334, 353 

Italian oak, 335 
„ walnut, 338 

Ivory, use of, in inlaying, 223 



Jacobean details, 282 

„ room, measured drawings of a, 293 
and Plate XLV. 



Jacobean style, 251 

Jack plane, 9 

Jackson and Graham, 256 

Jardinieres, 173 

Jarrah wood, 350 

Johnson, Thomas, 255 

Joints, description and application of — 

Connecting, Plate xiv. 

Dovetail, Plate IX. 

Framing, Plate XI. 

Glued, Plate vi. 

Halved and bridle, Plate VII. 

Hingeing and shutting, Plate xn. 

Mitred, Plate x. 

Miscellaneous, Plate xm. 

Mortise and tenon, Plate vm. 
Jointing, arrangement of materials, 60-61 
Joints in veneers, 217 



K 



Kamassie wood, 350 
Kauffmann, Angelica, 254 
Kauri pine, 348 
Keyed mitre, 45 
Keyhole saw, 10- 11 
Keying, 43 

„ an upper carcase, 158 
Kidney tables, 83, 109, m 
King William pine, 350 
King's Sanatorium bedroom suite, 297 
Kingwood, 340 

Kit of tools, description and cost of, 18 
Knole House, 259 
„ settees, 325 
Knuckle joints, 52 

„ screen joints, 252 



Lacewood, 343 

Lacing up edge of table top, 219 

Lagos mahogany, 337 

Laminated work — an ogee-shaped panel, 85 
,, for flush doors, 80 

,, panels for veneered work, 

212 

Lancewood, 344 

Larch, 347 

Lebanon cedar, 347 

Leopard wood, 340 

Lignum vita?, 341 

Lime wood, 334 

Linden wood, 344 

Line gauge, 220 

Linen-fold panels, 287 

Lining-up table tops, 90 

Linings, various, 171 

Lippings, methods of forming, 169 

Live oak, 336 

Locks, types of, 262 

Log, description of, 333 

Logwood, 348 



382 



INDEX 



Loose seats, 319-321 

Louis XIV., XV., XVI., styles of, 255 

„ „ types of brasswork, 268 

„ „ „ mouldings, 273 

h „ „ panelling, 294 

Lug shelf supports, 147, 168 



M 



Mahoganies, African, 337 
„ Australian, 351 

„ Benin, 337 

Colonial, 343 
„ Cuba, 336 

„ Gambia, 337 

„ Guatemala, 337 

,, Honduras, 337 

„ Indian, 337 

,, introduction of, 336 

„ Laguna, 337 

„ Mexican, 337 

„ Nicaragua, 337 

Maiden's-blush wood, 352 
Mansfield, Robinson, panelling, 286 
Manwaring, Robert, 255 
Maple, 343 
Marblewood, 340 
Marking awl, use of, 15 

„ dovetails from pins, 65 
„ drawer fronts and sides, 81 
„ knife, use of, 15 
„ out curved arms for chairs, 317 
„ out ribs for domes, 247 
„ out stuff with thumb and rule, 55 
„ shaped work, 55 
„ panelling for fixing, 282 
Marquetry cutter's donkey, 221 
„ description of, 221 

„ French work, 255 

„ shading for, 221 

Medullary rays, 327 
Metal mounts, 270 
Metalwork, decorative, 267-270 
Mitre attachment, 68 
block saw, 68 
box, 17 
cramps, 17 
cut, use of, 67 

shooting block, improved, 17 
shooting board, 17 
templates, 17, 69 
Mitred joints, various, 45 

„ plinth frame, construction of, 76 
Mitreing mouldings and breaks, 68 
„ panel mouldings, 68 
„ stuck mouldings, 69 
„ terms applied to, 67 
Mitres, curved, 237 

„ external, internal, and right, 67 
„ method of glueing up, 76 
„ tongued, 76 
Morris, William, 256 
Mortise gauge, 13 



Mortises and mortising — 

Methods of, 64 

Necessity for upright work, 65 

Paper gauge for depth, 64 

Proportions of, 64 

Setting mortise gauge, 64 

Testing with square, 64 
Mother-of-pearl, use of, in inlaying, 222 
Mouldings — 

Enlarging and diminishing, 235-237 

For barred doors, 274 

For various panels, 86 

In rebated frame, 80 

Names and definitions of, 35, 275 

Raking and curved, 237-238 

Scratching, 71 

Sections of, for the mill, 228 

Stuck-bedded machine, 272 

Template for, 80 

Types of, 272-275 

Working with plane, 70 
Mounts, brass, 136, 269 

,, ormolu, 255 
Muntings for doors, 35 

„ drawers, 82 

„ glass and carcase backs, 158 

Museum case, 300-303 

„ floor case, 302, Plate XLVin. 

,, print stand, 309-310 
„ Victoria and Albert, collections of 
furniture in, 259 
Music cabinets, construction of, 176-177 
Musk wood, 350 
Myall wood, 352 
Myrtle wood, 350, 352 



N 



Nailing, methods of, 73 

Native teak, 352 

Needle leaf trees, 326 

Needlewood, 352 

Nested tea tables, 1 21-122 

New Art, description of, 557 

New South Wales timbers, 351-352 

New Zealand timbers, 348-350 

Nulling, 251, 283 

,, carved on chair frame, 320 



Oaks, various, 334335 

Odessa oak, 335 

Office cabinets, 298-299, 305-306 

„ chair, 207 
Oilstones, choosing and use of, 15 

„ various, 15 

Old woman's tooth, 9 
Olive wood, 341, 351 
Onion wood, 352 
Oregon pine, 346 
Orham wood, 343 

Orthographic projection, examples of, 30-32 
Oyster Bay pine, 350 



INDEX 



383 



Padouk, 338 

Panelling, fixing of, 279-281 
„ Gothic, 286-289 

„ historic styles of, 28 1 

„ movable, 289 

Paper, drawing, qualities of, fixing and 

stretching, 23 
Papering up, 71 
Parquetry, 223 
Pearwood, 342 
Pedestals, 205 
Pelleting, 280 
Pencils, grades of, 23 
Penshurst Place, 259 
Pergolesi, painted work by, 254 
Perspective, methods of, 33-34 
Petworth House, Sussex, 259 
Piano, example of, Plate xxxvi. 
Pie-crust top of table, 95 
Pines, Canadian red, 347 
„ Carolina, 347 
„ celery top, 350 
„ cypress, 348, 352 
„ Huon, 350 
„ Kauri, 348 
„ King William, 350 
„ Moreton Bay, 352 
„ New Zealand white, 349 
„ Oregon, 346 
„ Oyster Bay, 350 
„ pitch, 346 
„ silver, 350 
„ Swiss, 34 
„ yellow, 345 
Pine planks, conversion of, 336 
Plane tree, 343 
Planes, types of — 

Iron, bull-nose, 8-9 
,, chariot, 8-9 
„ compass, 8-9 
„ mitre, 8-9 
„ panel, 8-9 
,, rebate, 8-9 
,, shoulder, 8-9 
„ side rebate, 9 
„ smoother, 8-9 
Moulding, bead, 10 
„ chamfer, 10 

„ groove and tongue, 10 

„ hollow and rounds, 10 

„ hook joint, 10 

ogee, 10 
,, ovolo, 10 

,, rule joint, 10 

,, Stanley combination, 10 

„ trenching, 10 

Wood, Bismarck, 8-9 
„ jack, 8-9 
„ jointer, 8-9 
„ panel, 9 
„ rebate, 9, 16 
,, smoothing, 8-9 



Plane s — continued. 

Wood, toothing, 8-9 
„ trying, 8-9 
Planing, methods of, 58 
Plinths, construction of, 76 

„ various, 35 
Plough, setting of, 63 
Ploughing, 63 
Plugging, 277 

Pocket screwing, methods of, 51 
Pollard oak, 334 

Polygons, methods of construction, 27-28 
Poplars, 344 

Proportionate division of lines, 26-27 
Protractors, use of, 4 
Puriri wood, 349 



Quadrant cellaret fitting, 154 

„ iron for cylinder falls, 265 

„ support for secretaire falls, and 

method of fixing, 204 
Quartered oak, 332 
Quartering, 333 

Quatrefoils, construction of, 240 
Queensland timbers, 352 
Queen Anne chair back, 313 

„ china cabinet, 163-164 

„ handles, 269-270 

„ modern tall-boy chest, 180 

„ occasional table with details, 

1 22 
style, 252 
„ veneered work, 210 

„ writing cabinet, 169-170 



Rails, 86-87 
Rasps, 17 
Rata wood, 349 
Rebating, 64 

„ after glueing, 87 
Recessing, 132 
Red bean, 352 

„ birch, 349 

„ cedar, 352 

„ gums, 350 

„ sanders wood, 348 
Reeding, 147 
Reeds, 275 

Remouthing a plane, 21 
Renaissance period, 251 
Revolving bookcases, 200 
Rifflers, 17 
Rifty shakes, 328 
Riga oak, 334 
Rimu, 349 
Rind galls, 329 
Ripping stuff on stool and bench, 56 



384 



INDEX 



Roller for large size drawing paper, 231 
Rosewoods, various, 339, 351 
Router, 9 

„ for curved lines, 218 
Rubbers, preparation and use of, 71 
Rule joint hinges, 261, 267 

„ „ setting-out, 52, 267 

„ „ stays, 169, 262 



Sabicu wood, 338 
Saffronwood, 353 
Sandalwood, 348-350 
Santa Maria wood, 338 
Sassafras wood, 350 
Satin walnut, 339 

,, woods, various, 345-378 
Satine wood, 338 
Saw set, 12 

Sawing, methods of, 56 
Saws, various, 10-12 
Saxifrage wood, 352 
Scale, drawing, 31 

„ rule, 23 
Scales, construction of, 26-27 
Scantling, 333 

Scraper spokeshave, use of, 315 
Scrapers, sharpening, 72 

„ use of, 71-72 

Scratch stocks, use of, 71, 218-219 
Scratching a moulding, 71 

„ a panel on pilaster, 71 

Screens, various, 195-196 
Screw cups, 73 

„ drivers, 15 
Screws, types of, used in cabinetwork, 73 
Scribing, methods of, 70 
Seasoning timber, various methods, 330-331 
Section of English oak, 327 
„ half a tree, 327 

„ jack plane, 5 

Sectional plan of corner cupboard, 204 
Sequoia wood, 347 
Setting a saw, 12, 56 

„ planes, 58 
Seventeenth century oak press, 3 
Sharpening gouges, 70 
„ planes, 58 

„ saws, 12, 56 

. „ spokeshaves, 15 

Shaving stands, 135 

fittings for, 134 
She oaks, 352 
Shearer, T., 255 

Shelf supports, various, 143, 168 
Shelly shake in timber, 328 
Sheraton, T., brasswork, 269 
,, chair backs, 313 

,, fireplace, 289-290 

,, mouldings, 274 

„ pier table, 129 

„ screens, 195 

„ style of, 251 

„ tables, Plate XXX. 



Shrinkage and warpage in timber, 329-330 
Shooting a bolection moulding, 69 

„ a moulding break, 69 

„ board, 61 

,, board with mitre attachment, 68 
Shoulder board, 57 

„ cutting, 58 
Sideboards, Adam, 153 

„ Georgian, 150 

leg, 152 
„ mahogany, Plate XVII. 

„ oak, Plate XL. 

„ painted, Plate XVIII. 

,, walnut, Plate XL. 

,, veneered elm, Plate xxxv. 

Silky oaks, 351 

Slats, circular and shaped, 86 
Slot screwing, 278 
Slotted bar movement, 113, 264-265 
Snakewood, 340 
Sneezewood, 353 
Softwoods, various, 345-378 
South African woods, 353 
Spanish oak, 335 

Specifications, how to draw one up, 232 
Specimen rods for setting out, 227 
Spindle moulding machine, 272 
Splad chair back, 313 
Spokeshaves, wood and iron, 15 
Spotted gum trees, 351 
Spruces, 346 
Square of timber, ^^t, 
Squares, set, 23 

„ tee, 23 

„ . try, 15 
Squeezing wax, use of, 230 
Stacking boards for seasoning, 331 
Stains in wood, removal of, 74 
Standard of timber, 333 
Stationery cases, fitting of, 127, 171 
Stave oak, 332-335 
Steam box, use of, 85 
Stinkwood, 353 

Stoves, electric, gas, and oil, 20 
Strangers' Hall, Norwich, 259 
Stringing and banding, 218 
Stringy barks, 351 
Stuart period, 251 
Stub mortises, 64 
Styles of furniture, notes on, 25c 
Sumach wood, 348 
Sun shakes in timber, 328 



Tabasco mahogany, 337 
Tables, types of — 

Bed, 138-139 

Billiard, 89, Plate XVI. 

Card, 1 29- 1 30, 132-133 

Chess, 138-139 

Chippendale writing, 119 

Circular, 136-137 

Console, 129 



INDEX 



385 



Tables — continued. 

Curio, 122-124 

Cylinder fall, 1 10- 113 

Dining, Plate xv., 90-91 

Dovetail slide, 92-93 

Draw (extension), 90, 100- 101 

Dressing, 1 12 

Elliptical, fancy, 136-137 

„ writing, 161 

Envelope card, 132-133 
Extending flap, 102-103 
Extension, 88 
Frame gate, 98-99 
French extension, 123 

„ writing, 117 
Gate leg, 95, 99 
Hall, 1 20- 1 2 1, 125 
Kidney dressing, 109-111 
Leaf extension, 92-94 
Library, 300-301 
Nested, 121 
Occasional, 124-125 
Pie crust, 138-139 
Pier, 128-129 
Pillar, 138-139 
Pivoted top, 1 30-1 31 
Pouch work, 104-105 
Revolving tray work, 99, 102 
Sheraton pier, 128-129 
Silver, 127-128 
Telescope, Plate xv. 
Tray frame, 90-91 
Work, 103-104 
Writing, 11 4-1 15 
Taking details, 230 

,, measurements and templates, 227-228 
Talbert, Bruce J., 256 
Tall-boy chest, 180-181 
Tambours, 266 
Tasmanian woods, 350 
Teak, 344 

Technical terms, 35, and Glossary 
Tee squares, 23 
Templates, for angles, 230 

,, „ chairmaking, 316 

,, „ curved work, 83, 177 

,, „ cutting mitres, 70 

„ „ dovetails, 66 

,, „ dowelling, 65 

,, „ marking out curved work, 247 

„ „ patterns in veneered work, 

216 
„ use of, 69 

„ wood, brass, and panel, 69 

Tenon cutting, 57 
Testing joints with straightedge, 61 
Thimble fitting for curtain rod, 107 
Three-ply panels, 333 
Thumb catches, 171 

,, screws, 17 
Thunder shake, 328 
Thurming work, 272 
Thuya, 341 

Timber, defects and diseases, 328-329 
„ trees, 326 

25 



Toat, 5 

Toilet-glass, 206-207 
Tongued joints, 63 
Tongueing board, 63 
Tongues, cross-grained, 62 

„ feather, 63 
Toon, 337 

Tool chest, making and fitting, 19 
Tools, care of, 21 
„ chapter on, 5 
„ kit of, 18 
Toothing, 71, 212 
Tortoiseshell, use as inlay, 223 
Totara, 349 

Tracing, methods of, 25 
Trammel, 28 
Traversing, 60 
Tray fittings, 1 5 1 
Trefoiling, 240 
Tuart wood, 350 
Tulip tree, 345 

„ wood, 241, 352 
Turning, details of, 116 

,, fancy, 272 

„ inclined chair legs, method of, 317 

,, ring-and-ball, 103 

„ types of, 100-101, 122, 180, 282 
Turkey oak, 335 



u 



Underframings for curio table, 124 

„ ,, dressing-table, 1 1 1 

„ ,, French extension table, 

123 
,, ,, hall table, 120- 121 

,, ,, leaf-extension table, 94 

,, ,, Queen Anne work, 122, 

180 
,, ,, William and Mary writ- 

ing table, 1 15 
Upsetts in timber, 328 



V 



Veneer clamps, 214 
„ hammer, 213 
„ press, 214 
„ sandbox, 214 
,, saw, 213 
Veneering and finishing with sheet zinc, 190 
,, „ „ wooden cauls, 190 

,, cleaning off, 217 

„ curved surfaces, 190 

,, laying with hammer and caul, 213 

„ oyster shell, 224 

,, preparation of groundwork, 211 

„ purpose of, 210 

„ shrinkage and flatting, 212-215 

Veneers, burrs, 211 
,, figures in, 211 
„ grades of, 211 
Victorian style, 256 
Violet wood, 340 



12388 39 



3 86 



INDEX 



W 

Wainscot oak, 332 
Wallace Collection, 259 
Walnut woods, various, 338-339 
Wandering heart in timber, 328 
Wandoo wood, 350 
Warding files, 17 
Wardrobes, construction of, 75 
gentlemen's, 159 
hanging, 159 
inlaid, 155 
mahogany, 160 
satinwood, Plate xxi. 
types of, 154 
wing, 156 
Washstands, construction of, 106-107 
„ enclosed for offices, 308 

„ folding up, 107 

„ types of, 108 

Water gilding, 118 

„ seasoning, 331 
Wattle woods, 350 
Waved edge for rims, building up, 86 

,, mouldings, machine for, 224 
Wet rot in timber, 329 
W'hite beech, New South Wales, 351 
„ cedar, 347 
„ deal, 346 
„ honeysuckle, 352 
„ pure, New Zealand, 349 
Whitewood, 345 



William and Mary arm-chair, 318 

,, ,, chest of drawers, Plate 

XXVIII. 

,, ,, china cabinet, 165 

„ style, 252 
Willow, 345 
Winding in timber, 35 

„ strips, use of, 59 
Wood-boring beetles, 329 
Woods producing dyes, 348 
Woolybutt wood, 351 

Working drawings, preparation of, 24, 226 
Writing cabinets, satinwood, Plate XX. 



Yarran wood, 352 
Yellow deal, 346 

„ pine, 345 

„ poplar, 345 

„ wood, 352 
Yew, English burr, 341 

,, New Zealand, 349 
York gum tree, 350 
Yorkshire dresser, 2 



Zebra wood, 341 
Zeen oak, 336 



Printed in Great Britain at The Darien Pkess, Edinburgh. 



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